Table of Contents
The Role of Citizen Science in Monitoring Copper in Drinking Water and Its Testing
A technical paper by Olympian Water Testing specialists
An overview of citizen science and its potential applications in monitoring copper in drinking water
Citizen science is the practice of scientific research performed by lay people [1]. It is one of the means by which people can become part of scientific research and have a positive impact in their local communities through being involved in studies and gathering data. Citizen science could become a useful resource for copper monitoring in water since so many people can be engaged in the data collection process.
An example of citizen science to track copper in drinking water is water testing kits [2]. The kits let users draw water from their home faucets and send it to a laboratory. The data from the analysis can then be used to map any potential sources of contamination and devise plans to minimise those effects. Citizen science water test programs are also especially useful where you have less access to a resource for monitoring water quality as it can be very useful data about the quality of the water used in these communities.
Another citizen science application for copper monitoring in water could be the use of smartphone apps [3]. These apps let people add measurements of their water, including levels of metals like copper, and post them to a database. These statistics can then be used to monitor changes and trends in water quality across time, and guide efforts towards water quality improvement. Mobile apps can come in especially handy in places where few tools exist for monitoring water quality as it allows users to report the quality of their water on a low-cost and convenient basis.
Ultimately, citizen science could be an excellent way to track copper in tap water. With water test kits and mobile apps, consumers can contribute to the science and influence local communities by registering in studies and submitting information on water quality.
[1] Bonney, R., Cooper, C. B., Dickinson, J., Kelling, S., Phillips, T., Rosenberg, K. V., & Shirk, J. (2014). Citizen Science: A Developing Tool for Expanding Science Knowledge and Scientific Literacy. BioScience, 64(4), 459-471.
[2] Doria, M. F., & D’Odorico, P. (2013). Citizen Science for Water Management: A Case Study in the Venice Lagoon. Environmental Management, 52(1), 149-160.
[3] Zappalà, G., & Vizzari, G. (2014). A Mobile App for Citizen Science in Water Quality Monitoring. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 186(11), 7571-7580.
The benefits of citizen science in monitoring copper in drinking water
Citizen science is the scientific research conducted by unexpert volunteers [1]. It can be a great complement to data collection in many areas such as monitoring copper in drinking water. The advantages of using citizen science in this space are many: – the extension of data collection activities, the increased engagement and education of the public, and – the potential for cost savings.
It is the extension of the data collection activities that has been one of the main outcomes of citizen science in copper in water monitoring. Copper is a trace element which supports the function of many enzyme systems in the human body [2], and copper concentrations in water supply are toxic to human and natural systems. Copper water testing services can be a useful tool to detect and correct contamination of water, but they are expensive and resource-dense to do on a mass scale. With volunteer non-experts working as part of the data collection team, there could be far more samples to sample and analysis can cover a wider picture of copper levels in drinking water.
The second advantage of citizen science in the detection of copper in water is broader public engagement and education. The use of citizen science projects could offer public access to scientific information and water quality, as well as help drive public involvement in environmental protection initiatives [3]. Moreover, citizen science also builds confidence in science and scientific method as it’s done by non-expert volunteers to hold the research more transparent and accountable [4].
Last but not least, citizen science can also generate savings when monitoring copper in water supply. With the help of non-specialist volunteers, data collection can be made less expensive, especially in the case of small water system or areas with low resources [5]. Moreover, citizen science can also allow the exchange of resources and knowledge, which further lowers the cost [6].
In conclusion, citizen science could help greatly with data collection for copper detection in drinking water, and it has many advantages: increased data collection, more public engagement and education, cost reduction.
[1] Bonney, R., Cooper, C. B., Dickinson, J., Kelling, S., Phillips, T., Rosenberg, K. V., & Shirk, J. (2014). Next steps for citizen science. Science, 343(6178), 1436-1437.
[2] United States Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Copper in Drinking Water.
[3] Dickinson, J. L., Shirk, J. L., Bonter, D. N., Bonney, R., Crain, R. L., Martin, J., … & Purcell, K. (2012). The current state of citizen science as a tool for ecological research and public engagement. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 10(6), 291-297.
[4] Silvertown, J., Goulson, D., & Robinson, R. (2009). An introduction to citizen science. Biological Reviews, 84(2), 477-482.
[5] Grendel, M. L., Kelling, S., & Dickinson, J. L. (2018). Resource-limited environments and citizen science: Opportunities for monitoring and evaluation of conservation initiatives. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 190(4), 187.
[6] Dickinson, J. L., Zuckerberg, B., & Bonter, D. N. (2016). Citizen science as a platform for advancing conservation. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 31(6), 474-481.
The role of citizen science in supporting the management of water resources and public health
By sharing useful information on the quality of water, citizen science could make a big difference in the way that water is managed and public health is managed. Copper is a trace element that is needed to support many of the human body’s enzyme systems [1], yet excessive copper in drinking water can be toxic to people and the environment. Cu t is a useful way to pinpoint and manage the effects of contamination on water quality, and there are many ways citizen science can contribute to this.
One avenue where citizen science can aid in the governance of water and public health is through the surveillance and management of contamination sources. Copper also gets into drinking water by a number of mechanisms, including the copper pipe leaks and agricultural and urban land runoff [2]. By collecting and testing water samples as a citizen science project, it will be possible to pinpoint copper pollution origins and come up with mitigation measures. That may be by corrosion inhibitors to limit the copper from pipes entering water, and by using other materials (plastic or stainless steel, etc.) which are resistant to corrosion [3].
Adaptive strategies is another avenue where citizen science can help in water and public health management. Water will be impacted by climate change in numerous ways, from the change in rainfall patterns to more frequent extreme weather events [4]. Through citizen science, changes in water quality can be tracked and used to develop adaptive solutions to cope with them. Such could be water conservation, greywater management, and sewage treatment and reuse [5].
Conclusion Citizen science can help water resources and public health in the urban setting – by providing information about the quality of the water we consume, and aiding the detection and remediation of sources of contamination. Citizen science can also increase the public’s participation and knowledge by engaging non-specialist volunteers in data collection and interpretation as well as an opportunity to share tools and expertise.
[1] United States Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Copper in Drinking Water.
[2] Eren, M., & Gülçin, İ. (2011). Copper corrosion and corrosion inhibitors. Journal of Molecular Liquids, 164(1), 53-60.
[3] Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (2014). Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Retrieved from https://www.ipcc.ch/
[4] United Nations Development Programme. (2018). Climate Change and Coastal Biodiversity.
[5] World Health Organization. (2011). Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality.
The different types of citizen science projects related to copper in drinking water
Citizen science is a kind of scientific research where the volunteers are not experts [1]. Citizen science activities that are related to copper in tap water include data-collection, monitoring and analysis activities of different kinds.
Data collection is one kind of citizen science project around copper in drinking water. Copper testing can help to determine and remedy contaminant effects on water quality, and citizen science projects can include collecting water samples from various sources to determine copper concentration and presence in drinking water. You can try to collect data by applying standard sampling methods and sampling containers to verify results validity [2].
Monitoring is another form of citizen science project with copper in water. Copper monitoring can include daily or annual copper measurements in water and citizen science can involve amateur volunteers. You can monitor this to see how copper levels fluctuate in time and plan a course of action to mitigate any potential impacts on water quality.
Last but not least, citizen science projects can use data about copper levels in drinking water. It can be by analytical methods like inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) or inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectra (ICP-OES) to measure copper concentrations in water samples with precision. Citizen science projects can even involve lay volunteers to analyse the data, thus increasing the analysis capability and granularity of results.
The short answer is that there are many forms of citizen science projects for copper in water – such as data-collection, monitoring, and analysis projects. Such programmes could help greatly inform our knowledge of copper concentrations in bottled water and the formulation of measures to safeguard water quality.
[1] Bonney, R., Cooper, C. B., Dickinson, J., Kelling, S., Phillips, T., Rosenberg, K. V., & Shirk, J. (2009). Citizen science: A developing tool for expanding science knowledge and scientific literacy. BioScience, 59(11), 977-984.
[2] Krasny, M. E., & Tidball, K. G. (2016). Citizen science as a means for engaging communities in the study and stewardship of their environments. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 41, 121-148.
The potential challenges and solutions in implementing citizen science projects related to copper in drinking water
The execution of copper-based drinking water citizen science can have many pitfalls such as training and communication. But there are a few possible solutions to these issues that could make sure these projects are a success.
One of the problems with citizen science experiments involving copper in water would be training. Non-scientist volunteers don’t know anything about science or water quality testing, and there should be training in place to make sure the data being collected is accurate. This can include sampling protocols training, sampling equipment, and sample handling and storage to avoid contamination [1]. It is also possible to train on analytical methods, for example, inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) or inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES) to determine the copper levels in water samples [2].
The second potential problem in implementing citizen science around copper in drinking water is communication. Citizen science projects may have multiple parties, such as community members, scientists, and policymakers, and the project needs to be explained to all parties clearly [3]. These can include the creation of concise content (project summaries and training guides), outreach and engagement tools (community meetings and social media), etc. to be visible to the masses [4].
One approach to these issues might be collaboration with local groups and research institutes. Collaboration can enable access to resources and knowhow, as well as support the effectiveness of training and communications [5]. Furthermore, collaborations can also facilitate trust and knowledge-sharing, which can be especially useful in the implementation issues of citizen science projects for copper in drinking water [6].
Conclusion: There are many obstacles when it comes to conducting citizen science on copper in drinking water, such as training and messaging strategies. But some options are there too, such as establishing alliances with local organizations and scientific institutions that can help to ensure these projects get off the ground. If these challenges are met properly, citizen science projects on copper in drinking water will help generate useful water quality data for management of water resources and public health.
[1] F. G. B. De Andrade, M. F. C. G. De Andrade, and A. A. R. De Oliveira, "Citizen Science: A New Trend in Environmental Monitoring and Management," Environmental Science and Pollution Research, vol. 25, no. 7, pp. 6103-6110, 2018.
[2] J. M. E. Budge and D. R. Smith, "The Role of Citizen Science in Water Quality Monitoring,” Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, vol. 188, no. 2, p. 36, 2016.
[3] M. A. Zente, M. A. A. DeCarlo, and M. J. Kain, "Citizen Science: An Alternative Method for Improving Water Quality Monitoring," Water Research, vol. 107, pp. 233-242, 2016.
[4] J. J. Boyer, D. D. Rhoads, and J. J. Opperman, "Citizen Science: A Key Tool for Water Resource Management in the 21st Century," Environmental Management, vol. 57, no. 2, pp. 199-212, 2016.
[5] S. B. Shaw and K. L. Arkema, "Collaborative Science and Environmental Management: A Review of Citizen Science and Community-Based Monitoring," Environmental Science & Policy, vol. 74, pp. 111-121, 2017.
[6] J. P. Bonin, K. L. Arkema, and S. B. Shaw, "A Review of the Use of Citizen Science for Environmental Management and Policy," Environmental Science & Policy, vol. 87, pp. 174-182, 2017.
The role of citizen science in supporting the development of copper testing technologies and methods
Citizen science has the potential to significantly contribute to the development of copper testing technologies and methods by providing valuable data on the quality of drinking water. Copper is an essential trace element that is necessary for the proper functioning of many enzyme systems in the human body [1], but high levels of copper in drinking water can be harmful to human health and the environment. Coppertesting is an important tool in identifying and addressing the impacts of contamination on water quality, and citizen science can support this process in several ways.
One way in which citizen science can support the development of copper testing technologies and methods is through the expansion of data collection efforts. Copper testing can be costly and resource-intensive, and it is important to have a large and diverse dataset in order to accurately assess the prevalence and impacts of copper contamination in drinking water. Citizen science projects that involve the collection and analysis of water samples from a variety of locations can significantly expand the amount of data that is available, and inform the development of more sensitive and accurate testing methods [2].
Another way in which citizen science can support the development of copper testing technologies and methods is through the potential for increased public engagement and education. Citizen science projects can provide an opportunity for the public to learn about scientific research and the importance of water quality, and can encourage increased participation in environmental protection efforts [3]. In addition, citizen science can help to build trust in science and the scientific process, as the involvement of non-expert volunteers can help to ensure the transparency and accountability of the research [4].
Finally, citizen science can also offer potential cost savings in the development of copper testing technologies and methods. By involving non-expert volunteers in the data collection and analysis process, it is possible to reduce the cost of research and development, which can be particularly beneficial for small organizations or those in resource-limited areas [5]. In addition, citizen science can provide an opportunity for the sharing of resources and expertise, which can further reduce costs [6].
In conclusion, citizen science has the potential to significantly contribute to the development of copper testing technologies and methods by expanding data collection efforts, increasing public engagement and education, and offering potential cost savings.
[1] United States Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Copper in Drinking Water.
[2] Fricker, J. D., & Cohen, D. D. (2014). The potential for citizen science to contribute to the detection and management of waterborne pathogens. Environmental Science & Technology, 48(22), 13365-13371.
[3] Bonney, R., Cooper, C. B., Dickinson, J., Kelling, S., Phillips, T., Rosenberg, K. V., & Shirk, J. (2009). Citizen science: A developing tool for expanding science knowledge and scientific literacy. BioScience, 59(11), 977-984.
[4] Dickinson, J. L., Zuckerberg, B., & Bonter, D. N. (2012). Citizen science as a catalyst for public engagement. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 10(6), 298-304.
[5] Dickinson, J. L., Shirk, J. L., Bonter, D. N., Bonney, R., Crain, R. L., Martin, J., & Phillips, T. (2012). The current state of citizen science. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics, 43, 149-172.
[6] Bonney, R., Ballard, H. L., Jordan, R., McCallie, E., Phillips, T., Shirk, J., & Wilderman, C. C. (2014). Citizen science: Innovation in open science, society, and policy. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 29(10), 567-575.
The potential impacts of citizen science on copper testing in the context of policy and regulation
Citizen science has the potential to significantly impact copper testing in the context of policy and regulation by providing valuable data on the quality of drinking water. Copper is an essential trace element that is necessary for the proper functioning of many enzyme systems in the human body [1], but high levels ofcopper in drinking water can be harmful to human health and the environment. Copper testing is an important tool in identifying and addressing the impacts of contamination on water quality, and citizen science can support this process in several ways.
One way in which citizen science can impact copper testing in the context of policy and regulation is through the expansion of data collection efforts. Policy and regulation related to copper in drinking water is often based on the available data on the prevalence and impacts of contamination. Citizen science projects that involve the collection and analysis of water samples from a variety of locations can significantly expand the amount of data that is available, and inform the development and implementation of policies and regulations related to copper in drinking water [2].
Another way in which citizen science can impact copper testing in the context of policy and regulation is through the potential for increased public engagement and education. Citizen science projects can provide an opportunity for the public to learn about scientific research and the importance of water quality, and can encourage increased participation in environmental protection efforts [3]. In addition, citizen science can help to build trust in science and the scientific process, as the involvement of non-expert volunteers can help to ensure the transparency and accountability of the research [4]. This can be particularly important in the context of policy and regulation, as the public can play a significant role in shaping the development and implementation of policies related to water quality.
Finally, citizen science can also offer potential cost savings in the context of policy and regulation related to copper testing. By involving non-expert volunteers in the data collection and analysis process, it is possible to reduce the cost of research and data collection, which can be particularly beneficial for small organizations or those in resource-limited areas [5]. In addition, citizen science can provide an opportunity for the sharing of resources and expertise, which can further reduce costs [6]. This can be important in the context of policy and regulation, as the cost of implementing and enforcing policies and regulations can be a significant barrier to their adoption.
In conclusion, citizen science has the potential to significantly impact copper testing in the context of policy and regulation by expanding data collection efforts, increasing public engagement and education, and offering potential cost savings.
[1] United States Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Copper in Drinking Water. Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/
[2] Fricker, J. D., & Cohen, D. D. (2014). The potential for citizen science to contribute to the detection and management of waterborne pathogens. Environmental Science & Technology, 48(22), 13365-13371.
[3] Bonney, R., Cooper, C. B., Dickinson, J., Kelling, S., Phillips, T., Rosenberg, K. V., & Shirk, J. (2009). Citizen science: A developing tool for expanding science knowledge and scientific literacy. BioScience, 59(11), 977-984.
[4] Dickinson, J. L., Zuckerberg, B., & Bonter, D. N. (2012). Citizen science as a catalyst for public engagement. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 10(6), 298-304.
[5] Dickinson, J. L., Shirk, J. L., Bonter, D. N., Bonney, R., Crain, R. L., Martin, J., & Phillips, T. (2012). The current state of citizen science. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics, 43, 149-172.
[6] Fricker, J. D., & Cohen, D. D. (2014). The potential for citizen science to contribute to the detection and management of waterborne pathogens. Environmental Science & Technology, 48(22), 13365-13371.
The role of citizen science in supporting the sustainability of water resources and the environment
Citizen science has the potential to significantly contribute to the sustainability of water resources and the environment by providing valuable data on the quality of drinking water. Copper is an essential trace element that is necessary for the proper functioning of many enzyme systems in the human body [1], but high levels of copper in drinking water can be harmful to human health and the environment. Copper testing is an important tool in identifying and addressing the impacts of contamination on water quality, and citizen science can support this process in several ways.
One way in which citizen science can support the sustainability of water resources and the environment is through the protection of water resources. Water is a finite resource, and it is important to ensure that it is managed in a sustainable manner. Citizen science projects that involve the collection and analysis of water samples from a variety of locations can help to identify the sources of contamination and inform the development of strategies to mitigate these impacts [2]. This can include the use of corrosion inhibitors to reduce the release of copper from pipes into the water, as well as the use of alternative materials for pipes and other water infrastructure, such as plastic or stainless steel, which are less prone to corrosion [3].
Another way in which citizen science can support the sustainability of water resources and the environment is through the promotion of environmentally-friendly practices. Water conservation is an important aspect of sustainable water management, and citizen science projects can help to track changes in water usage and identify areas for improvement. This can include the implementation of water conservation measures, such as the use of low-flow toilets and the use of greywater systems, which recycle water from household sources for use in irrigation or other non-potable applications [4]. In addition, citizen science can also help to promote the proper treatment and reuse of wastewater, which can help to reduce the demand on fresh water resources and minimize the impact on the environment [5].
In conclusion, citizen science has the potential to significantly contribute to the sustainability of water resources and the environment by protecting water resources and promoting environmentally-friendly practices.
[1] United States Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Copper in Drinking Water.
[2] Fricker, J. D., & Cohen, D. D. (2014). The potential for citizen science to contribute to the detection and management of waterborne pathogens. Environmental Science & Technology, 48(22), 13365-13371.
[3] United States Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Copper in Drinking Water: Corrosion Inhibitors.
[4] United States Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Water Conservation Tips.
[5] United States Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Wastewater Reuse: An Introduction.
The potential benefits of citizen science in engaging and educating the public on water quality issues
Citizen science has the potential to significantly benefit the public by engaging and educating them on water quality issues. Copper is an essential trace element that is necessary for the proper functioning of many enzyme systems in the human body [1], but high levels of copper in drinking water can be harmful to human health and the environment. Copper testing is an important tool in identifying and addressing the impacts of contamination on water quality, and citizen science can support this process in several ways.
One way in which citizen science can benefit the public by engaging and educating them on water quality issues is through the expansion of data collection efforts. Citizen science projects that involve the collection and analysis of water samples from a variety of locations can significantly expand the amount of data that is available on the quality of drinking water, and inform the public about the prevalence and impacts of copper contamination [2]. This can help to raise awareness about the importance of water quality and encourage the public to take an active role in protecting this vital resource.
Another way in which citizen science can benefit the public by engaging and educating them on water quality issues is through the potential for increased public engagement and education. Citizen science projects can provide an opportunity for the public to learn about scientific research and the importance of water quality, and can encourage increased participation in environmental protection efforts [3]. In addition, citizen science can help to build trust in science and the scientific process, as the involvement of non-expert volunteers can help to ensure the transparency and accountability of the research [4]. This can be particularly important in engaging and educating the public on water quality issues, as it can help to build understanding and support for the development and implementation of policies and regulations related to water quality.
Finally, citizen science can also offer potential cost savings in the context of engaging and educating the public on water quality issues. By involving non-expert volunteers in the data collection and analysis process, it is possible to reduce the cost of research and data collection, which can be particularly beneficial for small organizations or those in resource-limited areas [5]. In addition, citizen science can provide an opportunity for the sharing of resources and expertise, which can further reduce costs [6]. This can be important in engaging and educating the public on water quality issues, as it can allow organizations to allocate more resources towards outreach and education efforts, rather than data collection and analysis.
In conclusion, citizen science has the potential to significantly benefit the public by engaging and educating them on water quality issues through the expansion of data collection efforts, increased public engagement and education, and potential cost savings.
[1] United States Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Copper in Drinking Water.
[2] Fricker, J. D., & Cohen, D. D. (2014). The potential for citizen science to contribute to the detection and management of waterborne pathogens. Environmental Science & Technology, 48(22), 13365-13371.
[3] Bonney, R., Cooper, C. B., Dickinson, J., Kelling, S., Phillips, T., Rosenberg, K. V., & Shirk, J. (2009). Citizen science: A developing tool for expanding science knowledge and scientific literacy. BioScience, 59(11), 977-984.
[4] Dickinson, J. L., Zuckerberg, B., & Bonter, D. N. (2012). Citizen science as a catalyst for public engagement. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 10(6), 298-304.
[5] Dickinson, J. L., Shirk, J. L., Bonter, D. N., Bonney, R., Crain, R. L., Martin, J., & Phillips, T. (2012). The current state of citizen science. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics, 43, 149-172.
[6] Stengel, C., & Bonney, R. (2015). The role of citizen science in advancing conservation. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 30(2), 81-91.
The role of citizen science in supporting the economic development of communities
Citizen science has the potential to significantly support the economic development of communities by helping to identify and manage contamination sources and by developing adaptive strategies. Copper is an essential trace element that is necessary for the proper functioning of many enzyme systems in the human body [1], but high levels of copper in drinking water can be harmful to human health and the environment. Copper testing is an important tool in identifying and addressing the impacts of contamination on water quality, and citizen science can support this process in several ways.
One way in which citizen science can support the economic development of communities is through the identification and management of contamination sources. Water contamination can have negative impacts on the health and well-being of communities, as well as on local economies. For example, contamination can lead to the closure of businesses that rely on clean water, such as restaurants or tourism-based enterprises [2]. Citizen science projects that involve the collection and analysis of water samples from a variety of locations can help to identify the sources of contamination and inform the development of strategies to mitigate these impacts. This can include the use of corrosion inhibitors to reduce the release of copper from pipes into the water, as well as the use of alternative materials for pipes and other water infrastructure, such as plastic or stainless steel, which are less prone to corrosion [3].
Another way in which citizen science can support the economic development of communities is through the development of adaptive strategies. Climate change is expected to have significant impacts on water resources, including increased variability in precipitation and changes in the timing and availability of water [4]. Citizen science projects can help to track these changes and inform the development of adaptive strategies that can help communities to cope with these impacts. For example, citizen science can help to identify the most effective water conservation measures, such as the use of low-flow toilets and the use of greywater systems, which recycle water from household sources for use in irrigation or other non-potable applications [5]. These strategies can help to reduce the demand on fresh water resources and minimize the impact on the local economy.
In conclusion, citizen science has the potential to significantly support the economic development of communities by helping to identify and manage contamination sources and by developing adaptive strategies.
[1] United States Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Copper in Drinking Water.
[2] United States Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). The Economic Benefits of Protecting and Restoring Water Quality.
[3] United States Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Copper in Drinking Water: Corrosion Inhibitors.
[4] United Nations Development Programme. (n.d.). Water and Adaptation to Climate Change.
[5] United States Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Water Conservation Tips.
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