Table of Contents
Background
Nickel (Ni) is a metal with widespread distribution in the environment, including the earth’s crust, water bodies, and the atmosphere. The element has nutritional benefits for animals and plants and holds industrial and commercial significance. Humans can be exposed to Ni through ingestion, inhalation, and dermal routes. Exposure to high levels of Ni has been associated with various health problems (Cempel and Nikel 2006).
Ni contamination in drinking water is an important public health concern. It is essential to understand its sources, health impacts, regulatory standards (MCL), quantification approaches, and removal methods. Ni contamination can occur from natural sources, like weathering of Ni-bearing rocks, and anthropogenic sources such as industries, mining, plumbing, agricultural runoff, and waste incineration. Its occurrence depends on regional geology and proximity to point sources. The World Health Organization (WHO) has set a maximum contaminant level (MCL) of 70 µg/L, whereas USEPA and the European Union (EU) have set MCLs of 100 µg/L and 20 µg/L, respectively.
In the U.S., the EPA monitors Ni in drinking water, ensuring it remains below the MCL. Ni is an essential nutrient, but elevated concentrations can be toxic. Prolonged exposure can cause allergic reactions, gastrointestinal problems, increased carcinogenic risk, and immune and nervous system disorders. Public awareness is crucial in ensuring safe drinking water through regular monitoring and public campaigns.
Scientific studies demonstrate that high levels of Ni can lead to toxicity in humans, primarily through mechanisms like the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), depletion of antioxidants, and genotoxic impacts. Ni can cause inflammatory, carcinogenic, enzyme dysfunction, neurotoxic, and endocrine effects (Genchi et al. 2020). Once in the human body, Ni follows biotransformation steps involving absorption and distribution to tissues and organs. Under prolonged exposure, Ni may accumulate in tissues, leading to associated diseases.
Factors such as age, gender, nutritional status, and genetics can influence Ni toxicity. While Ni levels detected in U.S. drinking water are typically not a serious concern, regular monitoring is essential to ensure Ni-free water supplies.
Detection Methods and Removal Strategies
Various methods are used to quantify Ni in drinking water, including colorimetric and electrochemical methods, atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS), and inductively coupled plasma (ICP). These methods can detect Ni at very low levels (ppb to ppt) with high accuracy.
Several methods are also available for removing Ni from water, including ion exchange, activated carbon filtration, chemical precipitation, phytoremediation, and reverse osmosis (RO). RO is the most widely used method for Ni removal, but it can be expensive due to filter replacement costs.
Public Perspective
Here are some frequently asked questions (FAQs) about Ni contamination in drinking water:
Although long-term exposure to Ni can cause health issues, detected Ni levels in drinking water are generally too low to be of concern. Regular monitoring is necessary to avoid problems.
Water-soluble Ni compounds are absorbed by the lungs and excreted by the kidneys.
Common methods include chemical precipitation, electrochemical treatment, ion exchange, activated carbon filtration, and reverse osmosis.
Ni can enter the body through the respiratory tract, digestive system, and skin. Large doses or prolonged exposure can cause a range of health issues, including genotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, and carcinogenicity.
Chronic Ni toxicity can manifest as sinusitis, asthma, and dermatitis. Prolonged exposure has been linked to lung and nasal cancer.
Treatments include chelation therapy, gastric lavage, hemodialysis, and symptom management.
Ni can leach into water from Ni/chrome plating on taps and plumbing fittings. It is most likely to leach if the fitting is new or deteriorating.
Yes, exposure to certain Ni compounds increases the risks of lung and nasal cancer.
Acute Ni ingestion may cause nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, headache, and in severe cases, death. Chronic exposure has not been well-characterized in humans.
Ni contamination may result from improper waste management, leakage, and runoff from power plants, incinerators, and large furnaces.
Conclusion
Nickel (Ni) is a naturally occurring metal with some beneficial effects at low levels, but high concentrations in drinking water can lead to severe health issues. The USEPA regulates Ni levels to ensure public safety, setting secondary maximum contaminant levels (SMCLs) to prevent Ni exposure through drinking water. Various methods are available for detecting and removing Ni from water, depending on available resources and the level of contamination. Regular monitoring and public awareness are essential to maintain water safety. Further studies are needed to explore the long-term health effects of low-level Ni exposure.
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- Yasir A. Rehman, Ph.D.
Dr. Rehman was born in Rawalpindi, Pakistan. He completed his MSc from PMAS – Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi in 2011 where his thesis comprised a health risk assessment of subjects living in the vicinity of wastewater channels in urban settings and its relationship with the incidence of Malaria.
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