Table of Contents
Background
Magnesium (Mg) is a naturally occurring element in the Earth’s crust and the eighth most abundant element on the planet. Being a member of alkaline earth metals, Mg is highly reactive with other elements and compounds. Its environmental occurrence is in a variety of forms mainly in the form of rock minerals, seawater, and soil. Many plants such as grains, nuts, and leafy green vegetables contain Mg as an essential nutrient. Having a significant role in various biological processes in living organisms including humans, Mg is considered a very important ingredient in cellular processes as it has a role in energy metabolism, protein synthesis, muscle regulation, and nerve functions. In addition to its wide natural abundance in the environment, Mg is also produced through human activities such as the industrial production of a wide range of products including pharmaceuticals, fertilizers, and construction materials.
Further, Mg is also used in aircraft and automobile manufacturing processes and certain alloy production. Mg can also be found in drinking water as a result of the leaching and runoff process through both natural and anthropogenic sources. However, it is believed that the amount of Mg in drinking water may vary depending on the source and treatment it has received. Because of its biological role in living systems, people may choose to drink water with high Mg levels. It should be noted that the amount of Mg intake through drinking water is likely to be small compared to its dietary intake. Both surface (lakes, streams, etc.) and groundwater can have Mg either in free form or chelated with other chemicals. Apart from natural sources, Mg enters drinking water through various anthropogenic sources mainly including industrial discharge, fertilizers and chemicals used in agriculture, waste disposal sites such as landfills, mining, and corrosion of pipes made from galvanized steel. It is important to note that, the Mg concentration in drinking water may also be effective through treatment processes. Some treatment facilities add Mg to the water helping reduce the other minerals concentrations such as calcium which cause water hardness.
Moreover, Mg may also be added to drinking water to meet the human-recommended daily intake. The recommended daily intake of Mg varies depending on age and gender and it must be between 400-420 mg/day for men and 310-320 mg/day for women. In the US, Mg is also found in drinking water and its levels depend on the drinking water source and local geology. However, the detected levels in the US drinking waters are considered safe without posing serious health risks. If you have any concerns related to Mg levels in drinking water, you can contact the local water utility or water testing laboratory for further assistance and information. USEPA has established a secondary maximum contaminant level (SMCL) of 50 mg/L in drinking water which means that the SMCL refers to a non-enforceable guideline and water with Mg levels above SMCL may have unpleasant taste or appearance but with no serious health risks.
As discussed, Mg is mostly involved in beneficial roles in the human body with its role in more than 300 enzymatic reactions. Its deficiency has been associated with health problems mainly hypertension, osteoporosis, and diabetes. Its intake through drinking water may contribute to the daily intake of the body, however, the amount of Mg absorbed through water is generally much lower compared to its absorption via food. Therefore, the general health impacts associated with Mg in drinking water are likely to be small however, prolonged exposure to Mg can be a risk that should be taken into account by regular monitoring of Mg in drinking water. Studies have also shown the positive correlations of elevated Mg levels in the body with a variety of health issues such as diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, low blood pressure, confusion and altered mental status, and muscle weakness. As per WHO, drinking water should contain at least 10 mg/L of Mg.
Mg being an essential nutrient in the human body is majorly associated with beneficial health impacts. Its deficiency in the body has been linked with numerous health issues mainly involving cardiovascular diseases, and muscular and neurological problems. Due to this reason, usually, Mg levels in drinking water are not a cause of concern and it is believed that drinking water should contain amounts of Mg preferably under MCL guidelines. However, excessive levels of Mg intake by the body can lead to toxicity, which can affect various cellular mechanisms. One mechanism is through inhibition of calcium channels in the cell membrane, disrupting normal cellular communication and leading to muscle weakness and respiratory failure (Maier et al. 2021; Serefoglu Cabuk et al. 2020).
Additionally, high levels of magnesium can interfere with the function of the kidneys, leading to decreased urine output and kidney failure (Massy and Drüeke 2015). Furthermore, Magnesium can also bind to and activate certain enzymes in the body, leading to changes in cellular metabolism and potentially leading to cell death (De Baaij et al. 2015). Recent studies also corroborate the evidence of oxidative stress with Mg in humans (Liu and Dudley Jr 2020). Mg ions can bind to certain proteins, causing them to become inactive. This can lead to a disruption in normal cell functioning, leading to an increase in cell death.
At the molecular level, Mg also has significant role in the genomic stability of cells hence controlling the DNA replication and protein synthesis (Hartwig 2001). A recently conducted epidemiological study revealed a beneficial role of Mg in drinking water on atrial fibrillation suggesting that increased levels of Mg up to 10 mg/L in drinking water presented a positive association with atrial fibrillation (Wodschow et al. 2021). Further, it has been reported that Mg deficiency in the body may act as a genotoxic agent which may trigger the occurrence of cardiovascular diseases through epigenetic mechanisms in cardiovascular cells and tissues (Altura et al. 2016).
Detection Methods and Removal Strategies
Monitoring of Mg in drinking water can be done through variously described methods. The preference of selecting a method is dependent on the sensitivity of desired results, availability of analytical facilities, and costs of analysis. Among these, the colorimetric and potentiometry-based methods provide estimated information on Mg in drinking water. Flame photometry is also used to detect Mg by measuring the light emission from flame when a sample is introduced. For accurate and sensitive quantification of Mg, AAS coupled with different detection systems i.e. FAAS, GFAAS, etc. as well as ICP-MS/OES are widely used quantification methods. Similarly, the ionic species of Mg can be quantified using Ion chromatography whereas, the organic species chelated with Mg are usually measured using HPLC coupled with ICP or AAS.
It should be taken into account that because of the beneficial role of Mg in the body, relatively exceeding levels of Mg in drinking water are usually not associated with human health risks. However, to avoid its unnoticed exposure for long periods, several treatment options are available to ensure a safe drinking water supply to consumers. Among these, reverse osmosis is considered a cost-effective and efficient Mg removal method from drinking water which uses a semi-permeable membrane to allow water to pass through it using pressure resulting in the removal of various contaminants including Mg. More recently, a hybrid approach using nanofiltration and reverse osmosis are proven very effective and cheap technique for removing Mg from drinking water (Elazhar et al. 2021).
Further, Mg removal can also be performed by using the ion exchange method which uses a specialized resin bed through which the water is allowed to pass and ionic species of Mg are removed through the exchange process (Hailu et al. 2019; Yi et al. 2009). Mg-related hardness in water can also be removed from drinking water using the carbonation process which is a cheap and quick process to remove the water’s hardness (Ahn et al. 2018). Moreover, electrolysis is also a proven method for the effective removal of Mg from drinking water (Amarasooriya and Kawakami 2019; Kodikara et al. 2015). Distillation can also be used at a small-scale Mg removal from drinking water which involves heating water until it turns into steam which is then collected and cooled resulting in pure water removing many contaminants in it including Mg.
Public Perspective
Following frequently asked questions (FAQs) try to address some general public concerns in the US, especially the NYC region.
Experts suggest that total Mg intake must be at least 450–500 mg/day, and drinking water should contain a minimum of 25–50 ppm Mg.
Oral consumption of Mg is likely safe for most people when taken appropriately. Doses less than 350 mg/day are usually safe for most adults. However, some people may experience side effects of Mg intake such as stomach upset, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, etc.
Severe hypermagnesemia (levels greater than 12 mg/dL) can lead to cardiovascular complications (hypotension, and arrhythmias) and neurological disorders (confusion and lethargy). Higher values of serum magnesium (exceeding 15 mg/dL) can induce cardiorespiratory arrest and coma.
Mg plays many crucial roles in the body, such as supporting muscle and nerve function and energy production. Low magnesium levels are not usually associated with any health problems. However, chronically low levels can increase the risk of high blood pressure, heart disease, type 2 diabetes, and osteoporosis.
The way to check for increased Magnesium in water is through a Hardness Water Test. If you add liquid soap to a container and shake it profusely, observe what it looks like. If there are several suds present, it’s hard and may contain Mg.
People with diabetes, intestinal disease, heart disease, or kidney disease should not take Mg before speaking with their healthcare provider. Signs of an Mg overdose can include nausea, diarrhea, low blood pressure, muscle weakness, and fatigue. Mg can be fatal at very high doses.
Water softeners are typically used to remove Ca and Mg hardness in water by an exchange process. The Ca and Mg are removed from the water and replaced with Na in their place.
Boiling of water removes Mg ions to some extent but does not facilitate its complete removal. When the water is boiled, the precipitate is formed of calcium and bicarbonate ions and gets separated from the pure water.
This is usually done through a blood test to check your internal Mg level. Normal range is 1.3 to 2.1 mEq/L (0.65 to 1.05 mmol/L).
The ongoing processes associated with Mg absorption and utilization are pretty quick, so it’s important to make sure you’re always giving your body the Mg it needs. “Most Mg will stay in the body for anywhere from 12 to 24 hours.
The most readily observable adverse effect of magnesium in drinking water is the laxative effect, particularly with Mg sulfate at concentrations above 700 mg/L.
Magnesium is an essential mineral that can be found naturally in drinking water, and it offers various health benefits, including supporting muscle and nerve function, bone health, and maintaining a healthy heart. The safe level of magnesium in drinking water is generally considered to be around 30 to 100 mg/L (milligrams per liter), according to health and water quality guidelines. Most municipal water supplies contain magnesium levels within this range, which is safe for regular consumption.
While magnesium is beneficial, high magnesium in drinking water may cause some temporary side effects, particularly in people who are sensitive to it. Excessive magnesium can lead to digestive issues like diarrhea, as the body works to process the mineral. However, very high levels of magnesium are uncommon in most public water sources. If you’re concerned about the magnesium content in your water, you can have it tested, and if necessary, use water filtration systems to adjust the mineral levels to a safe and comfortable amount.
Magnesium in water is a naturally occurring mineral that plays a crucial role in various bodily functions, including muscle and nerve function, bone health, and maintaining a steady heart rhythm. Water with magnesium is considered beneficial for health due to its ability to support hydration and help balance electrolytes in the body. It is particularly helpful for people who may not get enough magnesium from their diet, as consuming magnesium-rich water can be an easy way to boost intake. Many bottled waters and mineral waters naturally contain magnesium, providing an accessible source of this important nutrient.
Magnesium water is also known for its potential to improve digestion and reduce muscle cramps, especially in individuals who are physically active. Since magnesium helps relax muscles, drinking water with magnesium can promote relaxation and support overall recovery. It is also believed to have a mild calming effect, contributing to better sleep quality. For those looking to improve their magnesium levels, incorporating magnesium-enriched water into their daily hydration routine can be a convenient and beneficial solution.
Conclusion
Among various contaminants found in drinking water, Mg is mainly considered beneficial for human health unless its consumption is in very high concentration and for a prolonged duration because of its key role in hundreds of enzymatic reactions in the body. It is believed that the contribution of Mg via drinking water is considerably low meeting the daily intake requirements of the body.
However, its levels should regularly be monitored in drinking water to avoid long-term exposure which has been associated with various health implications. EPA has established SMCL guidelines (50 mg/L) for Magnesium in drinking water referring to the unpleasant taste and appearance of water with Mg levels above SMCL. Therefore, it must be ensured by adopting a suitable treatment option that the supplied drinking water to households must contain Mg concentrations below the SMCL prescribed by EPA.
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- Yasir A. Rehman, Ph.D.
Dr. Rehman was born in Rawalpindi, Pakistan. He completed his MSc from PMAS – Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi in 2011 where his thesis comprised a health risk assessment of subjects living in the vicinity of wastewater channels in urban settings and its relationship with the incidence of Malaria.
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OTHER RESEARCH ON WATER CONTAMINANTS BY DR. YASIR
