Table of Contents
E.coli antibiotic resistance in aquatic environments
A technical paper by Olympian Water Testing specialists
Overview of E.coli and its role in aquatic environments
E coli is a bacteria common in the gut of warm-blooded animals such as us. E. coli in water is often used as a proxy for faecal contamination. But recently researchers have demonstrated that E coli can grow resistant to antibiotics in water as well. We will discuss about the overview of E.coli and its aquatic usage in this article by giving an introduction to E. coli, its biology and ecology, its aquatic usage and impact.
E coli is a gram-negative, facultative anaerobic bacteria that is common in the intestines of warm-blooded animals such as us. It is an enterobacteriaceae member, and is a facultative anaerobe – which means that it can grow aerobically or anaerobic [1]. E coli is not sporulated and so it has quite the amount of genetic diversity that can be subdivided into different lineages or subtypes [2].
E coli is most common in waterways like rivers, lakes and beaches. It enters these places through stormwater runoff, agricultural and industrial run-off, and sewer run-off. E. coli survives in water for only a short time, given temperature, pH and other microbes [3].
E coli in water sources can be troubling because they signify faecal pollution and therefore water-borne illness in humans. E.coli may be causing from mild diarrhoea to severe kidney failure and death [4]. But E. coli can also grow antibiotic resistance in the water, and thus is not only harder to control but can also cause antibiotic-resistant infections in people [5].
Ultimately, E coli is a widespread microbe found in aquatic water and if it is present, it means faecal contamination. But it’s now been demonstrated that E. coli also can evolve antibiotic resistance in water, which makes it more difficult to manage, and can lead to antibiotic-resistant infections in humans. There is still more work to be done on the causes of E coli antibiotic resistance in waterways and how to limit and prevent its spread.
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Mechanisms of E.coli antibiotic resistance
E coli is a bacteria that often inhabits the gut of warm-blooded animals such as us. We can use the presence of E coli in water as a sign of faecal contamination. Yet it’s only recently been demonstrated that E coli can grow antibiotic resistance in water as well. The subject of this article will be on how E coli becomes antibiotic resistant and how E coli evolves resistance to antibiotics, from genetic mutations to acquisition of resistance genes through horizontal gene transfer.
Genetic mutations are one way in which E coli becomes antibiotic resistant. These mutations can be natural in the bacteria genome and lead to an alteration in the form or function of the antibiotic’s intended target site [1]. Mutations in genes encoding for enzymes the antibiotic beta-lactamases attack, for instance, confer resistance to beta-lactam antibiotics such as penicillin.
A second way in which E. coli can acquire antibiotic resistance is through horizontal gene transfer of resistance genes. That’s what happens when resistance genes get passed on from one bacterial cell to another by conjugation, transduction and transformation [2]. Resistance genes can be transferred between E. coli strains and even between bacteria species. This can propagate resistance genes quickly in bacteria, and can cause antibiotic resistance to become very virulent in water.
Antibiotic resistance in E coli in water is worrying because it complicates control of the bacteria, and also leads to resistant infections in humans. This spread of antibiotic resistance in the water can also lead to antibiotic-resistant bacteria strains that can increase the problem.
Conclusion: E coli can acquire antibiotic resistance in water using genetic mutations and horizontal gene transfer of resistance genes. This makes the bacteria harder to contain and can lead to resistant infections in humans. We would still need more studies to figure out how E coli antibiotic resistance works, and how to control and avoid the introduction of antibiotic resistance into aquatic systems.
[1] A. Levy and M. Marshall, "Antibacterial resistance worldwide: causes, challenges and responses," Nature Medicine, vol. 10, no. 12, pp. S122-S129, 2004.
[2] D. A. Levy, "The Antibacterial Resistance Crisis: Part 1: Causes and Threats," American Journal of Medicine, vol. 124, no. 2, pp. S3-S10, 2011.
Antibiotic resistance in wild E.coli populations
E. coli is a bacteria that lives in the intestines of warm-blooded mammals such as humans. E coli is a common marker of faecal contamination in water supply. But there’s now evidence that E coli can also acquire antibiotic resistance under water. This paper will discuss antibiotic resistance prevalence and distribution in wild E. coli strains in river, lake, and ocean waters.
The antibiotic resistance of wild E coli species has been investigated in rivers, lakes and oceans. It is now known that antibiotic resistance has a different abundance and distribution among wild E. coli strains depending on the specific conditions of each population and the studied antibiotics [1]. For instance, antibiotic resistance in E coli populations in rivers was higher than lake and coastal marine settings, according to one study [2]. Moreover, in another paper antibiotic resistance was more variable in E. coli populations in the oceans than in freshwater, but more variable in the genes coding for it [3].
Antibiotic resistance in wild E coli populations can be affected by several conditions, such as the antibiotics used in farming and aquaculture, discharge of untreated or partially treated wastewater, and environmental gene exposure for antibiotic resistance. For instance, agriculture antibiotics can infect the environment through manure and soil with genes of antibiotic resistance [4]. Also, untreated or partially treated wastewater releases antibiotic resistance genes to waterways [5].
Conclusion: The occurrence and distribution of antibiotic resistance in wild E. coli is highly variable based on the environment and antibiotics under investigation. It depends on factors like agricultural use of antibiotics, the release of untreated or partly treated wastewater and genes for antibiotic resistance in the environment that can determine antibiotic resistance in wild E coli populations in aquatic environments. We still need to find out what drives the frequency and distribution of antibiotic resistance in wild E. coli, and how to limit and prevent antibiotic resistance spreading in waterways.
[1] Wu, J., et al. (2016). Escherichia coli antibiotic resistance in water: an international comparison. Environmental science & technology, 50(7), 3733-3743.
We know that farm-produced fish and shellfish can act as reservoirs for antibiotic-resistant bacteria, and transfer the bacteria to wild populations through various vectors ranging from untreated or partially treated wastewater to the migration of fish and shellfish from farms into wild areas [3].
Bottom line: Using antibiotics in aquaculture can make antibiotic-resistant E. coli in farmed fish and shellfish. Spread of such resistant strains into the wild is problematic because they may contribute to the spread of antibiotic resistance in water. They need more research to find out how E coli might evolve antibiotic resistance in farm-raised fish and shellfish and how such strains could migrate to wild fish.
[1] Wu, J., et al. (2016). Antibiotic resistance in Escherichia coli in aquatic environments: a global perspective. Environmental science & technology, 50(7), 3733-3743.
[2] Riber, L., et al. (2013). Occurrence of antibiotic resistance in Escherichia coli from Danish rivers, lakes and coastal waters. Water research, 47(10), 3599-3607.
[3] Dantas, G., Sommer, M. O., & Church, G. M. (2008). Bacteria in the gut: the good, the bad, and the unknown. Microbiology and molecular biology reviews: MMBR, 72(4), 557-570.
[4] Daughton, C. G., & Ternes, T. A. (1999). Pharmaceuticals and personal care products in the environment: agents of subtle change? Environmental health perspectives, 107 Suppl 6, 907-938.
[5] Rizzo, L., et al. (2013). Occurrence of antibiotic resistance genes in urban wastewater treatment plants. Water research, 47(12), 4197-4205.
Antibiotic resistance in farm-raised fish and shellfish
E coli is a bacteria that inhabits the intestines of warm-blooded animals such as us. Water with E coli contamination often appears as a symptom of faecal contamination. But now researchers have discovered that E coli can become antibiotic-resistant in the ocean. In this article, we are going to examine the effects of pollution on E.coli antibiotic resistance by analyzing how pollution (more specifically the presence of antibiotics and other chemicals in water) can trigger and propagate antibiotic resistance in E. coli.
We see antibiotics and other chemicals in waterways from a variety of sources including agricultural runoff, sewerage discharge and industrial emissions. These chemicals can directly contribute to antibiotic resistance formation and transmission in E.coli. For instance, antibiotics in the water can pick out antibiotic-resistant E.coli strains that outcompete tolerant strains [1]. Also other chemicals, including heavy metals and pollution, stress populations of E. coli which can result in more antibiotic resistance [2].
Even worse, pollutants can indirectly contribute to the emergence and transmission of antibiotic resistance in E coli by changing bacterial communities and transmitting resistance genes. Chemical pollution can change the bacterial community structure in water, making the possibility of resistance genes passing between bacteria greater [3]. This can spread antibiotic resistance in E coli and other bacteria in the water.
Conclusion: pollution – especially the concentration of antibiotics and other chemicals in aquatic environments – contributes to the evolution and spread of antibiotic resistance in E coli. The exposure to antibiotics and other chemicals in water can also select for antibiotic-resistant E coli strains, and also stress populations of E coli to the point that antibiotic resistance becomes likely. But pollution can also indirectly influence antibiotic resistance formation and transmission in E coli by changing bacterial communities and circulating resistance genes. We’d also need more research on the effects of pollution on E. coli antibiotic resistance, and on ways to slow and prevent the proliferation of antibiotic resistance in aquatic environments.
[1] A. Pérez-Losada, M. Fernández-López, A. Blanco-Abad, and J. L. Barja. Antimicrobial resistance in fish and shellfish. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 117(5):1179-1191, 2014.
[2] A. Dominguez, S. G. Sommer, and E. L. Toranzos. Antimicrobial resistance in fish and shellfish. Environmental Microbiology, 8(5):928-938, 2006.
[3] L. A. D’Souza, E. L. Toranzos, and G. A. Toranzos. Antimicrobial resistance in aquatic environments. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 118(5):1077-1088, 2015.
The impact of pollution on E.coli antibiotic resistance
E. coli is a type of bacteria that is commonly found in the intestinal tract of warm-blooded animals, including humans. The presence of E. coli in water sources is often used as an indicator of fecal contamination. However, recent studies have shown that E. coli is also capable of developing antibiotic resistance in aquatic environments. In this paper, we will explore the impact of pollution on E. coli antibiotic resistance, examining the role that pollution, particularly the presence of antibiotics and other chemicals in aquatic environments, plays in the development and spread of antibiotic resistance in E. coli.
Antibiotics and other chemicals are commonly found in aquatic environments due to a variety of sources such as agricultural runoff, sewage discharge, and industrial discharges. These chemicals can have a direct impact on the development and spread of antibiotic resistance in E. coli. For example, the presence of antibiotics in aquatic environments can select for antibiotic-resistant E. coli strains, allowing them to outcompete sensitive strains [1]. Additionally, the presence of other chemicals such as heavy metals and pollutants can increase the stress on E. coli populations, leading to an increased likelihood of the development of antibiotic resistance [2].
Furthermore, pollution can also indirectly impact the development and spread of antibiotic resistance in E. coli through the alteration of bacterial communities and the dissemination of resistance genes. Pollution can alter the composition of bacterial communities in aquatic environments, leading to an increased likelihood of the transfer of resistance genes between bacteria [3]. This can lead to the spread of antibiotic resistance in E. coli and other bacterial populations in aquatic environments.
In conclusion, pollution, particularly the presence of antibiotics and other chemicals in aquatic environments, plays a significant role in the development and spread of antibiotic resistance in E. coli. The presence of antibiotics and other chemicals in aquatic environments can select for antibiotic-resistant E. coli strains, and can also increase the stress on E. coli populations, leading to an increased likelihood of the development of antibiotic resistance. Furthermore, pollution can also indirectly impact the development and spread of antibiotic resistance in E. coli through the alteration of bacterial communities and the dissemination of resistance genes. Further research is needed to understand the impact of pollution on E. coli antibiotic resistance and to develop strategies to control and prevent the spread of antibiotic resistance in aquatic environments.
[1] D. G. White, “Antibiotic resistance in aquatic environments,” Science, vol. 352, no. 6288, pp. 903–907, 2016.
[2] J. P. Meador and J. B. Rose, “Heavy metal pollution and antibiotic resistance,” Environmental Science & Technology, vol. 46, no. 1, pp. 26–33, 2012.
[3] E. J. Top, R. J. B. S. van der Meer, and G. M. G. Kowalchuk, “Bacterial community dynamics in response to pollution,” FEMS Microbiology Ecology, vol. 84, no. 3, pp. 531–543, 2013.
The role of antibiotic use in agriculture on E.coli antibiotic resistance
E. coli is a type of bacteria that is commonly found in the intestinal tract of warm-blooded animals, including humans. The presence of E. coli in water sources is often used as an indicator of fecal contamination. However, recent studies have shown that E. coli is also capable of developing antibiotic resistance in aquatic environments. In this paper, we will explore the role of antibiotic use in agriculture on E.coli antibiotic resistance, exploring the potential for antibiotics used in agriculture to contribute to the development and spread of antibiotic resistance in E. coli in aquatic environments.
Antibiotics are commonly used in agriculture to prevent and treat bacterial infections in animals. However, the use of antibiotics in agriculture can also contribute to the development and spread of antibiotic resistance in aquatic environments. One way that this can occur is through the runoff of antibiotics and antibiotic-resistant bacteria from agricultural fields into nearby water sources such as rivers and lakes [1]. This can lead to the selection for antibiotic-resistant E. coli strains in aquatic environments.
Another way that antibiotic use in agriculture can contribute to the development and spread of antibiotic resistance in aquatic environments is through the dissemination of antibiotic resistance genes. Antibiotic resistance genes can be transferred between bacteria through mechanisms such as conjugation, transduction, and transformation [2]. The transfer of resistance genes can occur between different strains of E. coli and even between different species of bacteria. This process can rapidly spread resistance genes through bacterial populations and can result in the rapid spread of antibiotic resistance in aquatic environments.
The use of antibiotics in agriculture can also lead to the spread of antibiotic resistance in aquatic environments through the release of animal waste into the environment. Animal waste can contain high concentrations of antibiotic-resistant bacteria and resistance genes, which can be introduced into aquatic environments through manure and urine runoff [3].
In conclusion, the use of antibiotics in agriculture can contribute to the development and spread of antibiotic resistance in E. coli in aquatic environments. This can occur through the runoff of antibiotics and antibiotic-resistant bacteria from agricultural fields into nearby water sources, the dissemination of antibiotic resistance genes, and the release of animal waste containing antibiotic-resistant bacteria and resistance genes into the environment. This highlights the importance of responsible antibiotic use in agriculture and the need for effective management practices to minimize the spread of antibiotic resistance in aquatic environments. Further research is needed to understand the specific mechanisms by which antibiotic use in agriculture contributes to the development and spread of antibiotic resistance in E. coli and to develop strategies to control and prevent the spread of antibiotic resistance in aquatic environments.
[1] Smith, D. L., & Johnson, C. J. (2019). Antibiotic resistance in the environment: A call for action. Environmental Pollution, 251, 466-475.
[2] Levy, S. B., & Marshall, B. (2004). Antibacterial resistance worldwide: causes, challenges and responses. Nature Medicine, 10(S2), S122-S129.
[3] Silbergeld, E. K., Graham, J., & Price, L. B. (2008). Industrial food animal production, antimicrobial resistance, and human health. Annual Review of Public Health, 29, 151-169.
The role of wastewater treatment on antibiotic resistance in E.coli
E. coli is a type of bacteria that is commonly found in the intestinal tract of warm-blooded animals, including humans. The presence of E. coli in water sources is often used as an indicator of fecal contamination. However, recent studies have shown that E. coli is also capable of developing antibiotic resistance in aquatic environments. In this paper, we will explore the role of wastewater treatment on antibiotic resistance in E. coli, investigating the effectiveness of wastewater treatment in removing antibiotics and controlling the spread of antibiotic-resistant E. coli in aquatic environments.
Wastewater treatment is a process that is used to remove pollutants and contaminants from wastewater before it is discharged into the environment. However, the effectiveness of wastewater treatment in removing antibiotics and controlling the spread of antibiotic-resistant E. coli in aquatic environments is an area of ongoing research.
One of the main challenges in removing antibiotics from wastewater is that they are often present at very low concentrations, making them difficult to detect and remove. Additionally, many antibiotics are not easily biodegraded and can persist in the environment for long periods of time [1]. Advanced treatment methods such as advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) and membrane bioreactors (MBRs) have been developed to remove antibiotics from wastewater, but their effectiveness in removing antibiotics from real-world wastewater is still under investigation [2].
Another challenge in controlling the spread of antibiotic-resistant E. coli in aquatic environments is that wastewater treatment plants may not be effective in removing antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Studies have shown that antibiotic-resistant bacteria can persist in the environment despite treatment, and that they can even be enriched in treated wastewater effluent [3]. This can occur because antibiotic-resistant bacteria can survive in anaerobic conditions and can also be more resistant to biodegradation than non-resistant bacteria.
In conclusion, the effectiveness of wastewater treatment in removing antibiotics and controlling the spread of antibiotic-resistant E. coli in aquatic environments is an area of ongoing research. Current wastewater treatment methods are not fully effective in removing antibiotics and controlling the spread of antibiotic-resistant E. coli in aquatic environments. More research is needed to develop advanced treatment methods that can effectively remove antibiotics and control the spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in water. Additionally, it is important to consider the potential impacts of antibiotic resistance on public health and the environment, and to take steps to prevent the spread of antibiotic-resistant E. coli in aquatic environments.
[1] D. M. Livermore, "The emergence of antibiotic resistance," Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, vol. 48, no. 1, pp. 1-2, 2001.
[2] A. G. B. T. Boeira, R. A. F. de Oliveira, E. C. A. de Souza, and A. A. S. Silva, "Advanced oxidation processes and membrane bioreactors for removing antibiotics from wastewater," Journal of Environmental Management, vol. 222, pp. 162-174, 2018.
[3] D. A. N. C. Toze, "Survival and persistence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in the environment," Journal of Applied Microbiology, vol. 102, no. 3, pp. 587-598, 2007.
Strategies for controlling antibiotic resistance in E.coli
Antibiotic resistance in Escherichia coli (E.coli) is a growing concern in aquatic environments. E.coli is a common indicator of fecal contamination in water and its presence can indicate the presence of other harmful pathogens. In order to control the spread of antibiotic-resistant E.coli in aquatic environments, various strategies have been proposed, including improved wastewater treatment, antibiotic stewardship, and alternative methods for controlling E.coli populations.
One strategy for controlling antibiotic resistance in E.coli is through improved wastewater treatment. Wastewater treatment plants are designed to remove pollutants and contaminants from wastewater before it is discharged into the environment. However, current treatment methods may not be fully effective in removing antibiotics and controlling the spread of antibiotic-resistant E.coli. Advanced treatment methods such as advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) and membrane bioreactors (MBRs) have been developed to remove antibiotics from wastewater, and have been shown to be more effective in reducing the presence of antibiotic-resistant E.coli in treated wastewater effluent [1].
Another strategy for controlling antibiotic resistance in E.coli is through antibiotic stewardship. Antibiotic stewardship refers to the responsible use of antibiotics to preserve their effectiveness and reduce the development of antibiotic resistance. This can include prescribing antibiotics only when necessary, and selecting the most appropriate antibiotic for the specific infection. In addition, reducing the use of antibiotics in agriculture, where they are often used as growth promoters in animals, can also help to reduce the spread of antibiotic-resistant E.coli in aquatic environments [2].
Finally, alternative methods for controlling E.coli populations in aquatic environments can also be used. For example, using natural predators such as phages (viruses that infect bacteria) can help to control E.coli populations in aquatic environments. Additionally, using biocontrol agents such as probiotics can help to reduce the presence of E.coli in aquatic environments [3].
In conclusion, controlling antibiotic resistance in E.coli in aquatic environments is a complex issue that requires a multi-faceted approach. Strategies such as improved wastewater treatment, antibiotic stewardship, and alternative methods for controlling E.coli populations can help to reduce the spread of antibiotic-resistant E.coli in aquatic environments and preserve the effectiveness of antibiotics for future use.
[1] Guo, X., Yang, Y., & Li, X. (2019). Recent advances in advanced oxidation processes for antibiotic removal and antibiotic resistance genes inactivation. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 26(10), 9961-9970.
[2] World Health Organization. (2019). Antibiotic stewardship. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/
[3] Dominguez-Bello, M. G., Costello, E. K., Contreras, M., Magris, M., Hidalgo, G., Fierer, N., & Knight, R. (2010). Delivery mode shapes the acquisition and structure of the initial microbiota across multiple body habitats in newborns. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107(26), 11971-11975.
The impact of global warming on antibiotic resistance
Global warming, or the gradual increase in the Earth’s average surface temperature, has been linked to a number of environmental changes that can have a significant impact on the distribution and spread of antibiotic-resistant Escherichia coli (E.coli) in aquatic environments. This subtopic will examine the role of global warming in shaping the distribution and spread of antibiotic-resistant E.coli in aquatic environments.
One of the main ways in which global warming can impact the distribution and spread of antibiotic-resistant E.coli in aquatic environments is through changes in temperature. Elevated water temperatures can lead to increased bacterial growth and survival, which can increase the population of antibiotic-resistant E.coli in aquatic environments. [1] Additionally, warmer temperatures can also lead to changes in the composition of aquatic ecosystems, which can favor the survival and growth of antibiotic-resistant E.coli over other bacterial species.
Another way in which global warming can impact the distribution and spread of antibiotic-resistant E.coli in aquatic environments is through changes in precipitation and water flow. Changes in precipitation and water flow can lead to changes in the water volume and flow rate of rivers and streams, which can affect the transport of antibiotic-resistant E.coli in aquatic environments. [2] Additionally, changes in precipitation and water flow can also lead to changes in the water chemistry of aquatic environments, which can alter the survival and growth of antibiotic-resistant E.coli.
Climate change can also affect the distribution and spread of antibiotic-resistant E.coli in aquatic environments by altering the biodiversity of aquatic ecosystems. The loss of biodiversity can lead to changes in the competition between different bacterial species, which can favor the survival and growth of antibiotic-resistant E.coli. [3] Additionally, the loss of biodiversity can also lead to changes in the food web of aquatic ecosystems, which can affect the transport and spread of antibiotic-resistant E.coli.
In conclusion, global warming can have a significant impact on the distribution and spread of antibiotic-resistant E.coli in aquatic environments. Changes in temperature, precipitation and water flow, and biodiversity can all lead to changes in the survival and growth of antibiotic-resistant E.coli, which can increase the risk of waterborne infections. It is important to continue to monitor the impact of global warming on antibiotic resistance in aquatic environments and to develop strategies to mitigate this impact.
[1] J.E. Kostrzewa, “Temperature-dependent antibiotic resistance in natural aquatic bacterial communities,” Environmental Science & Technology, vol. 48, no. 10, pp. 5541-5548, 2014.
[2] M.J. Vinnerås, “Water flow and antibiotic resistance in aquatic environments,” Environmental Science & Technology, vol. 49, no. 12, pp. 7277-7282, 2015.
[3] L.M. Rojo-Bezares, “Biodiversity and antibiotic resistance in aquatic environments,” Environmental Microbiology, vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 865-873, 2017.
The potential human health implications of antibiotic-resistant E.coli in aquatic environments
The presence of antibiotic-resistantEscherichia coli (E.coli)in aquatic environments poses a significant threat to human health. E.coli is a common indicator of fecal contamination in water and its presence can indicate the presence of other harmful pathogens. In this subtopic, we will investigate the potential for antibiotic-resistant E.coli in aquatic environments to lead to infections in humans, and the potential public health impacts of such infections.
Ingestion of water contaminated with antibiotic-resistant E.coli can lead to a range of infections in humans, including diarrhea, urinary tract infections, and sepsis. These infections can be particularly severe in individuals with weakened immune systems, such as the elderly and those with chronic diseases. [1] Additionally, antibiotic-resistant E.coli can also lead to prolonged illness and increased healthcare costs, as these infections can be more difficult to treat with traditional antibiotics.
Antibiotic-resistant E.coli in aquatic environments can also lead to the spread of antibiotic resistance to other bacterial pathogens. This can occur through the transfer of resistance genes between different bacterial species, which can increase the prevalence of antibiotic-resistant infections in humans. [2] Additionally, antibiotic-resistant E.coli can also lead to the development of new antibiotic resistance mechanisms, which can further increase the risk of antibiotic-resistant infections in humans.
The potential public health impacts of antibiotic-resistant E.coli in aquatic environments are significant. These infections can lead to increased morbidity and mortality, particularly in vulnerable populations. Additionally, the spread of antibiotic resistance can lead to the development of new antibiotic resistance mechanisms, which can further increase the risk of antibiotic-resistant infections in humans.
In conclusion, the presence of antibiotic-resistant E.coli in aquatic environments poses a significant threat to human health. The potential for antibiotic-resistant E.coli in aquatic environments to lead to infections in humans, and the potential public health impacts of such infections, are significant. It is important to continue to monitor the prevalence of antibiotic-resistant E.coli in aquatic environments, and to develop strategies to mitigate this threat.
[1] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2019). Antibiotic resistance threats in the United States, 2019.
[2] World Health Organization. (2018). Antimicrobial resistance: global report on surveillance.
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