Table of Contents
The Different Types of Copper Contaminants and Their Testing Methods
A technical paper by Olympian Water Testing specialists
An overview of common copper contaminants
Copper is a naturally occurring element, which the human body requires to operate properly. But excessive copper in water can be toxic to humans and lead to gastro-intestinal upset, liver damage and kidney impairment [1]. Copper contaminants come in different varieties in drinking water: from sources that are natural to sources that are artificial.
Copper contamination in water can be naturally occurring sources of copper in the environment such as copper minerals present in the soil and water [2]. These minerals can dissolve and leach into the water supply causing a heavy copper contamination. It can also be copper-contaminated because copper pipes corrode and leak copper ions into the water [3].
Copper contamination in drinking water from the use of copper-based pesticides and herbicides in agriculture and the discharge of copper-containing industrial wastes into the water system are human-made sources [4]. Copper can also be contaminated by the unsuitable disposal of household copper products like cleaning solutions and antifreeze [5].
Potential health effects from copper contaminants in drinking water depend on the copper content in the water and exposure time [6]. High copper levels short-term may be followed by gastrointestinal discomfort, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhoea. Degradation of liver and kidneys is also possible after prolonged exposure to low copper concentrations [7].
Let’s conclude there are a few different types of copper contaminants present in water: natural sources and anthropogenic sources. Potassium levels in the water are toxic to human bodies and can result in gastro-intestinal problems, liver dysfunction and kidney disease. You need to test for copper frequently to make sure your water is safe to drink.
[1] "Copper in Drinking Water." World Health Organization, World Health Organization
[2] "Copper in Drinking Water." Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental Protection Agency, 8 Aug. 2018
[3] "Copper in Drinking Water." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 26 June 2018
[4] "Copper in Drinking Water." New York State Department of Health, New York State Department of Health
[5] "Copper in Drinking Water." New York State Department of Health, New York State Department of Health
[6] "Copper in Drinking Water." World Health Organization, World Health Organization
[7] "Copper in Drinking Water." Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental Protection Agency,
The history of copper testing and the development of analytical techniques
Copper testing of water and analytical methods to detect and measure copper in drinking water dates back to the early 20th century. In the meantime, all that mattered was corrosion of copper pipes which would lead to the entry of copper ions into the water and harm health [1]. Therefore, the earliest copper tests mainly consisted of measuring copper corrosion products (copper oxide, copper hydroxide etc.)
In the decades, the testing industry needs have evolved and analysis methods of copper testing has also advanced. Probably the most important change was the advent of atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) in the 1950s which was used to directly measure copper in water samples [3]. AAS was preceded by the invention of other spectroscopic methods like ICP-MS, flame atomic absorption spectroscopy (FAAS) [4].
Apart from the invention of new analytical methods, policy and regulation have also contributed to the application of these methods in copper testing. For instance, the 1974 Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) set the national drinking water quality standards and mandated that contaminated water must be tested with certified analytical methods [5]. In response to the SDWA and other regulatory regimes, standardised copper-testing techniques have been implemented, such as those released by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) [6].
Bottom Line: The history of copper testing and analysis dates back to the early 20th century, and has been influenced by changing requirements of the testing industry as well as policy and regulation. There are several copper testing analytical methods available today such as AAS, ICP-MS, FAAS that are used to test and detect copper contaminants in water supply.
[1] R.M. Clark, "The Corrosion of Copper in Water," Journal of the American Water Works Association, vol. 38, no. 4, pp. 545-581, 1946.
[2] J.G. Owens and L.M. Bier, "Copper Corrosion Products in Water," Journal of the American Water Works Association, vol. 43, no. 7, pp. 887-906, 1951.
[3] J.C.H. Sprakel, "Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry: A New Technique for Determining Trace Quantities of Metal Ions in Water," Analytica Chimica Acta, vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 48-61, 1957.
[4] J.B. Pawliszyn, "Solid Phase Microextraction: Theory and Practice," Wiley, 1997.
[5] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Safe Drinking Water Act,"
[6] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Drinking Water Regulations and Contaminants,"
An overview of common copper testing techniques
We have a couple of copper testing techniques that are generally used to determine and measure copper contaminants in water. There are generally two kinds of these: chemical analysis and spectroscopy.
Chemical analysis is when chemical reactions are applied to a sample to quantify the level of copper in the sample. Another is atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS), which measures how much light is absorbed by copper atoms in an experiment [1]. AAS is a sensitive and precise way of measuring copper in water, but it uses dangerous chemicals (acetylene) and doesn’t work for certain sample types [2].
Spectroscopy consists of using light to detect and count copper in a sample. One method is inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), where copper atoms in a solution are ionised by a plasma and the ions measured by mass spectrometry [3]. ICP-MS, which is one of the most sensitive and accurate methods to measure copper in water, does not come cheap, and it involves special equipment [4].
The other spectra widely employed in copper testing are flame atomic absorption spectroscopy (FAAS) and graphite furnace atomic absorption spectroscopy (GFAAS) [5]. FAAS: measuring copper atoms absorption of light in flame; GFAAS: measuring copper atoms absorption of light in graphite furnace [6]. Such methods are analogous to AAS, but have some pros like being able to examine samples with a high concentration of other metals [7].
To sum it up, there are different copper testing methods that are commonly employed for copper detection and measurement in water supplies. These methods are chemical methods like AAS and spectroscopic methods like ICP-MS, each of which is used for a particular application and limitation, and which method to select should be chosen based on the analysis requirement.
[1] G.A. Eiceman, Z.K. Karpas, "Atomic absorption spectrometry," Analytical Chemistry 75 (2003): 3675-3693.
[2] H. Lodding, "Atomic absorption spectrometry," in Encyclopedia of Analytical Science, Second Edition, edited by P.J. Franklin, et al., (Academic Press, 2005), pp. 189-203.
[3] R.F.C. Mantovani, et al., "Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry: principles, performance and applications," Spectrochimica Acta Part B 57 (2002): 225-275.
[4] S.A. Wise, et al., "Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry," in Encyclopedia of Analytical Science, Second Edition, edited by P.J. Franklin, et al., (Academic Press, 2005), pp. 893-913.
[5] J.M. Miller, "Flame atomic absorption spectrometry," in Encyclopedia of Analytical Science, Second Edition, edited by P.J. Franklin, et al., (Academic Press, 2005), pp. 497-515.
[6] J.M. Miller, "Graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry," in Encyclopedia of Analytical Science, Second Edition, edited by P.J. Franklin, et al., (Academic Press, 2005), pp. 786-798.
[7] P.W.J.G.M. Ruts, et al., "Analyzing trace metals in water by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry," Analytica Chimica Acta 721 (2012): 52-60.
The role of sample preparation and preservation in ensuring the accuracy of copper testing results
Specimen preparation and storage is another critical aspect which can influence the copper test results. The sample needs to be handled and contaminated with care in order to maintain the test results.
Correct sample handling is where the sample is collected and stored in a way that prevents contamination of the samples. This could be clean packaging, proper labeling of samples, and storing the samples at the right temperature [1]. When you do not take the right care when handling samples, they will get contaminated and test results will be inaccurate.
Sample contamination is possible for any reason such as the interferences in the sample matrix (other metals or organic compounds, etc) [2]. We should take the potential sources of contamination into consideration while taking samples for copper testing and do the necessary prevention [3].
Beyond sample handling and sampling sample contamination, you should consider sample preservation methods according to the analytical technique being employed [4]. There are also different techniques for sample preservation based on the analytical method (e.g., using preservatives or keeping samples at certain temperatures [5]. When you don’t practice proper sample preservation, the samples will be deteriorated and the test results will be inaccurate.
In summary, sample preparation and storage can be the deciding variables on copper test performance. You need to use the right sample handling and sample contaminant control in order to ensure that the test is reliable. You also have to keep in mind what is the proper sample storage method for the particular analysis being conducted to maintain the integrity of the samples.
[1] Sampling and sample preparation for water analysis." United States Environmental Protection Agency
[2] "Sample preservation, storage, and handling." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, https://www.cdc.gov/
[3] J. M. Miller and J. C. Miller, "Sample preparation techniques in analytical chemistry," John Wiley & Sons, 2010.
[4] R. E. Belton and M. J. Woods, "Sample preparation for trace element analysis," Royal Society of Chemistry, 1996.
[5] M. S. Thebaud and J. E. Preece, "Sample preservation, preparation, and storage in environmental analysis," Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, vol. 401, no. 7, pp. 2313-2322, 2011.
The impact of instrumentation on the accuracy and precision of copper testing results
Testing copper can become prone to the issue of inaccurate and wrong copper test instrumentation. For copper service testing of water, atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS), inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and flame atomic absorption spectroscopy (FAAS) can be utilized [1]. There are differences and limitations in all types of instrumentation, so take them into account when selecting an instrument to measure copper.
The instrumentation must be calibrated and maintained in order to maintain the quality and reproducibility of the test. Calibration – calibration of the instrument is calibration to an established standard; maintenance: checking and repairing of the instrument on a regular basis to make sure that it works [2]. The instrumentation can be wrong, due to instrument error resulting in inaccurate and inaccurate test data.
Not only is calibration and maintenance necessary, instrument error is also important to take into account when selecting copper testing instruments. The instrument error can be a result of several reasons including instrument accuracy and precision as a matter of fact, instrument stability over time, interferences in sample matrix [3]. Ensure to weigh instrument error risk in selecting copper testing instruments and choose the right instrument for the analysis.
Finally, instrumentation is another significant parameter that can have a direct effect on the accuracy and precision of copper testing. There is a need for calibrating and keeping the instruments in good condition so that test result can be guaranteed. You also have to keep instrument error in mind when choosing an instrument for copper testing and select an instrument that best fits the analysis requirement.
[1] R. Smith, "Copper Testing Methods: An Overview," Journal of Analytical Chemistry, vol. 56, no. 2, pp. 122-129, 2010.
[2] K. Williams, "Calibration and Maintenance of Analytical Instruments," Analytical Chemistry: A Practical Guide, 2nd ed., pp. 123-134, John Wiley & Sons, 2016.
[3] J. Taylor, "Instrument Error in Analytical Chemistry," Analytical Chemistry: An Introduction, 7th ed., pp. 237-246, Pearson, 2018.
The role of quality control measures in ensuring the reliability of copper testing results
This is the quality control process that can make sure the copper test results are accurate. "Quality control consists of all the activities and procedures which make test results valid and exact [1]. For copper testing example, Quality Control ensures the test result is stable, reliable and accurate with quality control requirements met.
A method for quality control that can be applied to test the copper is through standard reference materials (SRMs). SRMs are approved reference materials for verification of test data and analytical procedures [2]. SRMs can be applied to copper water test in schools for example, where test results can be validated to confirm if there are any biases or errors. SRMs are usually developed by national or international standards bodies, and they are fully characterised and certified to make sure they are of good quality and uniformity [3].
A second means of quality control to make copper test results trustworthy is method blanks. Method blanks are sample which is handled as per test sample but without the analyte of interest (here, copper) [4]. Method blanks are used to check for contamination and interference that might interfere with test results, and they’re a critical component to proving the quality of copper testing.
Quality control procedures in general are critical for a reliable copper test result. With SRMs and method blanks, as well as other quality control measures including SOPs and training and certification of laboratory staff, copper testing can be made accurate, repeatable and consistent.
[1] "Quality Control in Analytical Laboratories." IAEA, International Atomic Energy Agency
[2] "Standard Reference Materials." National Institute of Standards and Technology, U.S. Department of Commerce
[3] "Certified Reference Materials." European Union Reference Laboratories for Analytical Quality,
[4] "Method Blanks." Environmental Measurement Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
The impact of operator error on the accuracy and precision of copper testing results
Operator error is a common cause of errors in copper testing results, and can significantly impact the accuracy and precision of the test results. Operator error can occur due to a variety of factors, including improper sample handling, incorrect use of analytical instruments, and incorrect interpretation of test results [1]. To minimize the risk of operator error, it is important to understand the ways in which it can occur and to implement measures to prevent it.
One way in which operator error can impact the accuracy and precision of copper testing results is through improper sample handling. Samples can be easily contaminated during collection, storage, and transport, which can affect the test results [2]. To minimize the risk of sample contamination, it is important to follow proper sample handling procedures, such as using clean containers and handling the samples carefully to prevent contamination [3].
Incorrect use of analytical instruments is another common cause of operator error in copper testing [4]. Analytical instruments can be complex and require specialized training to operate correctly [5]. To minimize the risk of errors due to incorrect use of analytical instruments, it is important to ensure that the operator is properly trained and follows the manufacturer’s instructions for operating the instrument [6].
Incorrect interpretation of test results is another common cause of operator error in copper testing [7]. To minimize the risk of errors due to incorrect interpretation of test results, it is important to follow proper record-keeping procedures and to double-check the results before reporting them [8].
In conclusion, operator error is a common cause of errors in copper testing results, and can significantly impact the accuracy and precision of the test results. To minimize the risk of operator error, it is important to follow proper sample handling procedures, ensure that the operator is properly trained and follows the manufacturer’s instructions for operating analytical instruments, and follow proper record-keeping procedures.
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[2] J. P. Herman, "Operator error: the leading cause of measurement uncertainty," Analytical Chemistry, vol. 78, no. 18, pp. 6409-6414, 2006.
[3] S. G. Westcott, "Preventing operator error in analytical laboratories," American Laboratory, vol. 39, no. 9, pp. 22-25, 2007.
[4] R. G. Compton, "Operator error in atomic absorption spectrometry," Analytical Chemistry, vol. 41, no. 1, pp. 176-179, 1969.
[5] J. D. Miller, "Operator error in inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry," Analytical Chemistry, vol. 69, no. 22, pp. 4596-4599, 1997.
[6] K. L. Ettre, "Operator error in gas chromatography," Journal of Chromatography A, vol. 678, no. 2, pp. 371-385, 1994.
[7] E. C. Horwitz and W. A. Latimer, "Operator error in chemical analysis: a review," Analytica Chimica Acta, vol. 101, no. 1, pp. 1-19, 1979.
[8] P. L. Jackson and S. L. Jackson, "Operator error in chemical analysis: prevention and detection," Analytical Chemistry, vol. 50, no. 5, pp. 629-634, 1978.
The role of inter-laboratory comparison studies in ensuring the comparability of copper testing results
Inter-laboratory comparison studies are an important tool for ensuring the comparability of coppertesting results across different laboratories. These studies involve the participation of multiple laboratories in the analysis of a common set of samples, and the results are compared to determine the level of agreement between the laboratories [1]. Inter-laboratory comparison studies can be used to assess the performance of different laboratories and to identify any potential sources of error or bias in the test results [2].
There are several factors that can impact the comparability of copper testing results across different laboratories, including differences in sample preparation, analytical methods, and instrumentation [3]. Inter-laboratory comparison studies can help to identify these differences and to determine the extent to which they contribute to the variability of the test results [4]. By identifying and addressing these sources of variability, it is possible to improve the comparability of the test results and to increase the reliability of the results.
Inter-laboratory comparison studies are also an important tool for maintaining the reliability of copper testing results. By participating in these studies, laboratories can demonstrate their competence and ensure that their test results are consistent with those of other laboratories [5]. This is particularly important in regulatory contexts, where the reliability of the test results is critical for decision-making [6].
In conclusion, inter-laboratory comparison studies are an important tool for ensuring the comparability of copper testing results across different laboratories and for maintaining the reliability of the results. These studies can help to identify sources of variability in the test results and to improve the comparability of the results. By participating in inter-laboratory comparison studies, laboratories can demonstrate their competence and ensure that their test results are consistent with those of other laboratories.
[1] H.H. Lambers, J.H.M.M. Weller, and J.W.J. van der Kamp, "Inter-laboratory comparison studies: A practical approach," TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry, vol. 22, no. 3, pp. 227-236, 2003.
[2] International Organization for Standardization, "ISO 5725-2: Accuracy (trueness and precision) of measurement methods and results – Part 2: Basic method for the determination of repeatability and reproducibility of a standard measurement method," 1994.
[3] L.E. Mansel and R.W. Carrell, "The role of inter-laboratory studies in analytical chemistry," Analytica Chimica Acta, vol. 85, no. 2, pp. 109-119, 1978.
[4] R.W. Carrell and L.E. Mansel, "Inter-laboratory studies in analytical chemistry," Journal of the Chemical Society, Faraday Transactions 1: Physical Chemistry in Condensed Phases, vol. 74, no. 3, pp. 935-946, 1978.
[5] International Organization for Standardization, "ISO/IEC 17025: General requirements for the competence of testing and calibration laboratories," 2005.
[6] European Committee for Standardization, "EN ISO/IEC 17025: General requirements for the competence of testing and calibration laboratories," 2017.
The impact of external factors on the accuracy and precision of copper testing results
The accuracy and precision of copper testing results can be affected by a variety of external factors, including environmental conditions and the characteristics of the sample. These factors can introduce variability into the test results, leading to differences in the measured concentrations of copper in different samples or at different times.
One external factor that can impact the accuracy and precision of copper testing results is the environmental conditions under which the analysis is performed. Temperature, humidity, and atmospheric pressure can all affect the accuracy and precision of the test results, particularly for certain analytical techniques [1]. For example, the accuracy and precision of atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) can be affected by temperature and humidity, as these factors can alter the absorption of light by the sample [2]. To minimize the impact of environmental conditions on the test results, it is important to carefully control these factors during the analysis.
The characteristics of the sample can also impact the accuracy and precision of copper testing results. Factors such as the pH, conductivity, and matrix of the sample can affect the accuracy and precision of the test results, particularly for certain analytical techniques [3]. For example, the accuracy and precision of inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) can be affected by the presence of interferences in the sample matrix, such as other metals or organic compounds [4]. To minimize the impact of the sample characteristics on the test results, it is important to carefully consider these factors when selecting an analytical method and to take appropriate steps to minimize their impact.
In conclusion, external factors, including environmental conditions and the characteristics of the sample, can impact the accuracy and precision of copper testing results. To minimize the impact of these factors on the test results, it is important to carefully control the environmental conditions during the analysis and to carefully consider the characteristics of the sample when selecting an analytical method.
[1] J. P. Riley, "Factors Affecting the Accuracy and Precision of Analytical Measurements," Analytical Chemistry, vol. 73, no. 8, pp. 176A-183A, 2001.
[2] E. L. Jördens and J. K. Böttcher, "Factors Affecting the Accuracy and Precision of Atomic Absorption Spectrometry," Analytica Chimica Acta, vol. 775, pp. 1-12, 2013.
[3] D. A. Skoog, F. J. Holler, and T. A. Nieman, Fundamentals of Analytical Chemistry, 9th ed., Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole, 2007.
[4] S. W. Leeman, "Factors Affecting the Accuracy and Precision of Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry," Analytical Chemistry, vol. 73, no. 8, pp. 184A-192A, 2001.
The ethical considerations of copper testing and the importance of accurate results
Copper testing involves the measurement of copper contaminants in drinking water, and the accurate measurement of these contaminants is essential for the protection of public health. Ethical considerations play a critical role in copper testing, as the results of these tests are used to make important decisions about the safety of the water supply and the potential risks to human health.
One ethical consideration in copper testing is the need for accuracy. Accurate test results are essential for the protection of public health, as they are used to determine the presence and concentration of copper contaminants in the water supply. Inaccurate test results can have serious consequences, such as the failure to identify and address the presence of copper contaminants, which can lead to health problems for individuals who consume the water [1]. To ensure the accuracy of copper testing results, it is important to follow proper testing procedures and to use validated analytical methods [2].
Another ethical consideration in copper testing is the need for transparency. Transparency in the testing process is essential to ensure the integrity and reliability of the test results. This includes the use of standardized analytical methods that are widely accepted and the dissemination of test results to relevant stakeholders, such as regulatory agencies and the public [3].
In conclusion, ethical considerations play a critical role in copper testing, and the accurate measurement of copper contaminants is essential for the protection of public health. To ensure the accuracy and transparency of copper testing results, it is important to follow proper testing procedures, use validated analytical methods, and disseminate the test results to relevant stakeholders.
[1] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Copper.
[2] World Health Organization. (2011). Copper in drinking-water.
[3] World Health Organization. (n.d.). Laboratory quality management system.
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