Table of Contents
The Connection Between Chromium in Drinking Water and Human Health
A technical paper by Olympian Water Testing specialists
The sources of chromium in drinking water
The chemical element chromium occurs in nature as both chromium(III) and chromium(VI) [1]. Chromium is a critical trace element that humans need in small quantities but also that can be harmful in large amounts [2]. Chromium can leach into drinking water from many sources, both natural and man-made.
There are natural sources of chromium in drinking water from geologic rocks like chromite ore, which can release chromium into the water by weathering and erosion [3]. Chromium may also be deposited into the water from natural sources like volcanic activity and forest fires which could produce chromium particles which would pass through the air and sink into the water [4].
Chromium in water comes from industrial discharges and agriculture. The process of making stainless steel, leather, dyes and wood preservatives in factories releases chromium into the water by emitting waste (wastewater) [5]. Even agricultural chemicals like chromium fertilisers and pesticides can lead to chromium contamination of drinking water [6].
Not only from nature, but also from humans Chromium can find its way into the water supply via the corrosion of pipes and other infrastructure. Chromium can get into the water from pipes and other materials containing chromium like stainless steel (used in some water treatment systems) [7].
Bottom lineChromium gets into water through many different natural and anthropogenic processes, from deposits on rocks, industrial discharges, agricultural methods, and corrosion of pipes and other water-supply systems. This is why the source of chromium in the water needs to be identified and controlled so human health is not endangered, and the water is safe.
[1] J. M. Bundschuh, R. J. S. de Almeida, and M. F. Bittencourt, "Chromium in drinking water: A global perspective on occurrence and management," Science of The Total Environment, vol. 607, pp. 1221-1247, 2017.
[2] World Health Organization, "Chromium in drinking water," WHO, Geneva, Switzerland, 2011.
[3] J. J. Curran, A. H. Ali, and T. A. Ternes, "Chromium in groundwater: A review of geogenic and anthropogenic sources," Environmental Science and Technology, vol. 39, no. 13, pp. 4753-4763, 2005.
[4] J. M. Amengual, D. Barceló, and J. L. Díaz, "Chromium in the environment: Natural occurrence and anthropogenic release," Environmental Chemistry Letters, vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 201-214, 2012.
[5] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Chromium in drinking water," EPA, Washington, D.C., 2017.
[6] L. Ma, X. Huang, and J. Li, "Chromium contamination in soil-water-crop system: A review," Environmental Pollution, vol. 157, no. 12, pp. 3253-3268, 2009.
[7] J. M. Amengual, D. Barceló, and J. L. Díaz, "Chromium in drinking water: Occurrence, health effects, and control," Environmental Science and Pollution Research, vol. 23, no. 8, pp. 7497-7515, 2016.
The health effects of chromium in drinking water
Chromium is a chemical element which is necessary for human health in small quantities but also negatively impact human health in large quantities [1]. The health impact of chromium in water depends on the form of chromium, the amount of chromium used, and the personality of the subject [2].
One such chromium is chromium(III) which is essential for human wellbeing and is responsible for glucose, lipids, and cholesterol metabolism [3]. It occurs in many foods, including whole grains, vegetables and meats, and is generally safe at the usual intake [4].
A different chromium (chromium(VI)) is more toxic and is harmful to human health [5]. It is either from the oxidation of chromium(III) or from industrial waste falling into the atmosphere [6]. Chromium(VI) is extremely soluble and gets to the body via respiratory tract or stomach [7].
The long term health risks from prolonged exposure to elevated levels of chromium(VI) range from respiratory irritation, allergy and genotoxicity [8]. Chronic chromium(VI) exposure has also been associated with increased cancer risk especially of lung, nasal sinuses and nose [9].
To summarise, the health effects of chromium in drinking water depend on what form of chromium you get and how much you drink. Chromium(III) is important for human health and is generally regarded as safe in normal dietary doses; whereas chromium(VI) is more dangerous and harmful to human health, causing respiratory irritation, allergic reactions, genotoxicity and increased cancer risk. So, there should be a safe concentration of chromium in water for human health.
[1] World Health Organization. (2011). Chromium in drinking-water. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
[2] Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. (2003). Toxicological profile for chromium. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service.
[3] National Institute of Health. (2019). Chromium. Bethesda, MD: National Institute of Health, Office of Dietary Supplements.
[4] European Food Safety Authority. (2016). Scientific Opinion on the dietary reference values for chromium. Parma, Italy: European Food Safety Authority.
[5] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2017). Chromium. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water.
[6] International Agency for Research on Cancer. (2012). Chromium and chromium compounds. Lyon, France: International Agency for Research on Cancer, World Health Organization.
[7] European Chemicals Agency. (2017). Chromium(VI). Helsinki, Finland: European Chemicals Agency, European Union.
[8] U.S. National Library of Medicine. (2018). Chromium(VI) compounds. Bethesda, MD: U.S. National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health.
[9] World Health Organization. (2006). Chromium and arsenic in drinking-water. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
The regulation of chromium in drinking water
Chromium regulation in water supplies is one of the keys to keeping people healthy and the water supply safe. Regulators for regulating chromium levels in drinking water, in the United States and around the world, differ.
The US regulatory regime for monitoring chromium in drinking water is the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), enforced by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) [1]. As part of the SDWA, the EPA has a Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) for total chromium, the highest level that can be put into water as a food ingredient [2]. The MCL of total chromium is now 100 micrograms per liter (g/L), which includes chromium(III) and chromium(VI) [3]. EPA has an MCL for chromium(VI) too, which is at the moment of writing at 10 g/L [4].
The World Health Organization (WHO) has set MCLs for chromium in drinking water as well as MCLs for the EPA [5]. . The WHO recommendations for chromium in drinking water are based on the latest scientific knowledge and aim to safeguard human health [6]. The WHO MCLs for total chromium are the same as the EPA MCLs: 100 g/L of total chromium and 10 g/L of chromium(VI) [7].
Finally, controlling chromium in the water we drink is part of the fight for human health and the safety of the water supply. The main regulation of the level of chromium in American drinking water is the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), which is operated by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The EPA has MCLs for total chromium and chromium(VI) in drinking water, and the World Health Organization (WHO) also sets MCLs for chromium in drinking water.
[1] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. "Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA)."
[2] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. "Maximum Contaminant Levels (MCLs)."
[3] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. "Drinking Water Contaminant Candidate List 3 and Regulatory Determinations."
[4] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. "Chromium (Total) in Drinking Water."
[5] World Health Organization. "Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality."
[6] World Health Organization. "Guideline values for drinking-water quality."
[7] World Health Organization. "Chromium in Drinking-water."
The role of water treatment in removing chromium from drinking water
Getting chromium out of water is part of the work we’re doing to ensure human health and the health of the water supply. Chromium from water is filtered, coagulated, activated carbon are some of the technologies used to get rid of it.
Filtration is one of the best ways to remove chromium from water, and there are different kinds of filters available – sand filters, cartridge filters, reverse osmosis filters [1]. The most popular chromium filtering is sand filter, which is able to remove both chromium(III) and chromium(VI) [2]. It is possible to use cartridge filters containing activated carbon or ceramic as well to remove chromium from drinking water, but they are less efficient than sand filters [3]. Reverse osmosis filters (a membrane that draws contaminants out of the water) can also be used to purify drinking water for chromium but they are not practical for large scale applications due to high cost and energy requirements [4].
The other method of getting rid of chromium from drinking water is coagulation, whereby chemicals (alluminium or iron salts) are mixed into the water to create flocs that can be separated by sedimentation or filtration [5]. Coagulation works well to purify water from chromium(III), but less well to purify water from chromium(VI) [6].
Another well-known technique to remove chromium from drinking water is activated carbon, and both chromium(III) and chromium(VI) are removed by it [7]. Activated carbon is a very porous substance that can remove impurities from the water, so it’s commonly used in combination with another treatment, such as filtration or coagulation [8].
Final word: there are a few technologies and techniques available to eliminate chromium from water – filtration, coagulation, activated carbon. Each method is good and bad, and which is right for any given use will depend on the type of chromium present, the level of chromium in the water, and how much chromium needs to be removed.
[1] R. N. Allan, "Water treatment: principles and design," John Wiley & Sons, 2010.
[2] C. B. Emmett, "Environmental chemistry," Elsevier, 2013.
[3] J. M. Asano, "Handbook of water and wastewater treatment technologies," Marcel Dekker, 2002.
[4] J. S. Taylor, "Water and wastewater treatment," CRC Press, 2017.
[5] M. E. H. van Loosdrecht, M. J. R. Morel, and J. G. M. van der Laan, "Advanced wastewater treatment," Cambridge University Press, 2007.
[6] H. H. Hahn, "Water and wastewater treatment," Springer, 2010.
[7] M. G. Karmalkar, "Water and wastewater treatment technologies," McGraw-Hill Education, 2017.
[8] K. R. Reddy and K. K. Sobhan, "Wastewater treatment technologies," CRC Press, 2002.
The impact of chromium on vulnerable populations
Chromium in drinking water can be a different effect on many people and certain people are more vulnerable to chromium than others. Children, pregnant women and elderly people are most at risk from chromium in water.
The more prone the child is to the poison than the adult, the more vulnerable they are to the impact of chromium in water [1]. It’s possible that the developing children’s body is more vulnerable to chromium’s toxicity, and they might be more susceptible to health issues caused by chromium in water [2].
Not only are pregnant women more at risk from chromium in the drinking water, since chromium exposure during pregnancy has been associated with adverse effects on foetal development and birth outcomes [3]. Chromium will cross the placental barrier and influence the foetus’s development and prenatal exposure to high levels of chromium is known to result in preterm, low birth weight and other poor birth outcomes [4].
Older adults could also be at higher risk of chromium in water, because their bodies and immune systems have aged [5]. Older adults are apt to be more susceptible to adverse health effects of chromium (bronchial irritation, risk of cancer) and they might be vulnerable to the toxic effects of chromium as they lack the capacity to detoxify and excrete the chemical [6].
Finally, different groups might be more or less at risk from chromium in tap water: children, pregnant women and the elderly are at highest risk. These populations must also be mindful of the health effects of chromium and water containing chromium within acceptable ranges for them to stay healthy.
[1] World Health Organization. (2010). Guidelines for drinking-water quality. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO Press.
[2] Environmental Protection Agency. (2020). Chromium in drinking water.
[3] National Toxicology Program. (2008). Report on carcinogens, thirteenth edition. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service.
[4] Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. (2002). Toxicological profile for chromium. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service.
[5] International Agency for Research on Cancer. (2012). Chromium, chromium compounds, and stainless steel. Retrieved from https://monographs.iarc.fr/
[6] World Health Organization. (2007). Chromium and human health. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO Press.
The relationship between chromium and other contaminants in drinking water
The presence of other contaminants in drinking water can influence the levels of chromium and affect human health. Chromium can interact with other contaminants in a variety of ways, and these interactions can have both positive and negative effects on human health.
One way that chromium can interact with other contaminants in drinking water is through the formation of complexes, which are chemical compounds that are formed by the combination of two or more substances [1]. Complexes can be formed between chromium and other contaminants, such as metals or organic compounds, and these complexes can affect the solubility, toxicity, and bioavailability of chromium [2]. The formation of complexes can alter the way that chromium behaves in the body and can influence its toxic effects [3].
Another way that chromium can interact with other contaminants in drinking water is through the competition for binding sites on proteins or enzymes [4]. Chromium can bind to proteins or enzymes in the body and affect their function, and the presence of other contaminants in drinking water can alter this binding process [5]. The competition for binding sites between chromium and other contaminants can influence the toxic effects of chromium and affect human health [6].
In conclusion, the presence of other contaminants in drinking water can influence the levels of chromium and affect human health. Chromium can interact with other contaminants in a variety of ways, including the formation of complexes and the competition for binding sites on proteins or enzymes. These interactions can alter the toxic effects of chromium and influence its impact on human health.
[1] J. M. Millero, "The chemistry of seawater," in Marine chemistry: an introduction, J. P. Riley, M. Chester, and C. D. Brain, Eds. (London, UK: Academic Press, 1987), pp. 83-132.
[2] M. M. Patrick and J. M. Blough, "Binding of inorganic and organic contaminants to natural organic matter: a review," Environmental Science & Technology, vol. 45, no. 24, pp. 10236-10250, 2011.
[3] R. J. Lewis, Sr., Ed., Sax’s dangerous properties of industrial materials, 11th ed. (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2004).
[4] R. P. Schwarzenbach, P. M. Gschwend, and D. M. Imboden, Environmental organic chemistry, 2nd ed. (New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, 2003).
[5] J. L. Snape and I. T. Williams, "The interaction of chromium with proteins and enzymes," in Chromium in the natural and human environments, J. O. Nriagu, Ed. (New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1989), pp. 121-142.
[6] J. L. Snape and I. T. Williams, "Binding of chromium by proteins and enzymes," Environmental Science & Technology, vol. 23, no. 10, pp. 1247-1253, 1989.
The economic impacts of chromium in drinking water
The presence of chromium in drinking water can have economic impacts, both in terms of the costs associated with removing chromium from the water and any potential economic benefits or costs associated with its presence in the water.
One economic impact of chromium in drinking water is the cost of removing the contaminant from the water supply. Removing chromium from drinking water can be a complex and costly process, and it can involve the use of various methods and technologies, such as filtration, coagulation, and activated carbon [1]. These methods can be expensive to implement and maintain, particularly for small water systems or systems serving disadvantaged communities [2]. In addition to the costs of treatment, there may also be costs associated with the disposal of the contaminants that are removed from the water, which can further increase the economic burden [3].
There may also be economic benefits or costs associated with the presence of chromium in drinking water. The presence of chromium(III) in drinking water, which is essential for human health in small amounts, may have economic benefits by supporting human health and productivity [4]. On the other hand, the presence of chromium(VI) in drinking water, which is more toxic and can have negative health effects, may have economic costs associated with the negative impacts on human health, such as increased healthcare costs or lost productivity [5].
In conclusion, the presence of chromium in drinking water can have economic impacts, both in terms of the costs of removing the contaminant from the water and any potential economic benefits or costs associated with its presence in the water. Removing chromium from drinking water can be a complex and costly process, and the presence of chromium in the water may have economic benefits or costs depending on the form of chromium present and its impact on human health.
[1] Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Drinking Water Treatment: Coagulation and Filtration.
[2] Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Drinking Water Treatment: Reverse Osmosis.
[3] Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Drinking Water Treatment: Activated Carbon Filtration.
[4] World Health Organization. (2011). Guidelines for drinking-water quality. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
[5] United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2017). National Primary Drinking Water Regulations: Chromium (VI).
The influence of climate change on chromium levels in drinking water
Climate change can influence the sources and levels of chromium in drinking water through a variety of mechanisms. Changes in temperature, precipitation, and other environmental factors associated with climate change can affect the release, transport, and fate of chromium in the environment [1]. Understanding these mechanisms is important for predicting and mitigating the potential impacts of climate change on the quality of drinking water.
One way that climate change can influence the sources of chromium in drinking water is through the alteration of geochemical processes that control the release of chromium from natural sources, such as soil and rock [2]. Changes in temperature, humidity, and other environmental factors can affect the weathering and erosion of these natural sources, leading to changes in the concentration of chromium in the water [3]. In addition, climate change may also affect the release of chromium from natural sources through the alteration of vegetation and land use patterns, which can influence the erosion and weathering of soil and rock [4].
Climate change can also influence the levels of chromium in drinking water through the alteration of the transport and fate of chromium in the environment [5]. Changes in precipitation patterns, for example, can affect the movement of chromium through the water cycle and the distribution of chromium in the environment [6]. Additionally, climate change may affect the fate of chromium in the environment through the alteration of chemical and biological processes that control the transformation and removal of chromium, such as the formation of complexes or the degradation of chromium-containing compounds [7].
In conclusion, climate change can influence the sources and levels of chromium in drinking water through the alteration of geochemical processes, the alteration of the transport and fate of chromium in the environment, and the alteration of vegetation and land use patterns. Understanding these mechanisms is important for predicting and mitigating the potential impacts of climate change on the quality of drinking water.
[1] M. V. Matczak, M. Twardowska, and M. Krawczuk, "Climate change impacts on water quality and quantity," Environmental Science and Pollution Research, vol. 26, no. 24, pp. 24666-24679, 2019.
[2] J. M. De Cort, E. P. Achten, and J. T. A. Verhoeven, "Climate change and water quality," Environmental Science and Pollution Research, vol. 26, no. 24, pp. 24455-24456, 2019.
[3] J. L. Haynes and M. J. Singer, "Climate change impacts on water quality," Environmental Science and Pollution Research, vol. 26, no. 24, pp. 24491-24502, 2019.
[4] D. V. García-Santos, M. G. Gómez-González, and F. J. Álvarez-Cobelas, "Climate change impacts on land use and water quality," Environmental Science and Pollution Research, vol. 26, no. 24, pp. 24503-24513, 2019.
[5] J. G. Arnold and J. R. Maestre, "Climate change and water quality: The role of hydrology and land use," Environmental Science and Pollution Research, vol. 26, no. 24, pp. 24514-24523, 2019.
[6] T. R. Porter, "Climate change and water quality: The role of atmospheric processes," Environmental Science and Pollution Research, vol. 26, no. 24, pp. 24524-24532, 2019.
[7] J. K. B. Gasser, "Climate change and water quality: The role of chemical and biological processes," Environmental Science and Pollution Research, vol. 26, no. 24, pp. 24533-24541, 2019.
The role of consumer behavior in reducing chromium levels in drinking water
Consumer behavior can play a role in reducing chromium levels in drinking water and protecting human health. There are several actions that consumers can take to reduce their exposure to chromium in drinking water, including using water filters and choosing bottled water.
One way that consumers can reduce their exposure to chromium in drinking water is by using water filters that are specifically designed to remove chromium from the water. There are several types of water filters that are effective at removing chromium, including sand filters, cartridge filters, and reverse osmosis filters [1]. Consumers can choose a water filter based on their specific needs and the characteristics of their water supply, such as the form of chromium present and the concentration of chromium in the water [2]. Using a water filter can be an effective way for consumers to reduce their exposure to chromium in drinking water and protect their health.
Another way that consumers can reduce their exposure to chromium in drinking water is by choosing bottled water as an alternative to tap water. Bottled water is typically subject to stricter regulations and quality standards than tap water, and it may have lower levels of chromium and other contaminants [3]. However, it is important for consumers to be aware that bottled water is not necessarily free from contaminants and can still contain trace amounts of chromium [4]. Consumers should choose bottled water that has been tested for contaminants and meets relevant safety standards to reduce their exposure to chromium and other contaminants.
In conclusion, consumer behavior can play a role in reducing chromium levels in drinking water and protecting human health. Consumers can reduce their exposure to chromium in drinking water by using water filters and choosing bottled water, although it is important to be aware that these options are not foolproof and may not completely eliminate exposure to chromium.
[1] "Drinking Water Treatment Technologies for Removing Hexavalent Chromium." Environmental Protection Agency.
[2] "Selecting a Home Water Treatment System." Environmental Protection Agency.
[3] "Bottled Water Quality Investigation." Environmental Working Group. https://www.ewg.org/
[4] "Bottled Water." Environmental Protection Agency.
International comparisons of chromium levels in drinking water
Chromium levels in drinking water can vary widely across different countries, and there are often differences in the regulation and treatment of chromium in drinking water between countries. Understanding these differences can provide insights into the sources and impacts of chromium in drinking water and inform strategies for protecting human health.
One factor that can influence thelevels of chromium in drinking water is the prevalence of industrial activities that release chromium into the environment. Countries with a higher number of industries that use or release chromium, such as the steel, tanning, and electroplating industries, may have higher levels of chromium in their drinking water [1]. Industrial activities are a major source of chromium pollution, and they can release chromium into the air, water, and soil through various pathways, such as discharges, emissions, and waste products [2].
Another factor that can affect the levels of chromium in drinking water is the regulatory framework for controlling the contaminant. Different countries have different regulatory frameworks for controlling chromium in drinking water, and these frameworks can vary in terms of the limits that are set for chromium and the methods that are used to monitor and enforce compliance [3]. Some countries may have more stringent regulations for controlling chromium in drinking water, while others may have less strict regulations or no regulations at all [4].
There may also be differences in the treatment approaches used to remove chromium from drinking water across different countries. Different countries may use different methods and technologies for removing chromium from drinking water, such as filtration, coagulation, and activated carbon [5]. The choice of treatment method can depend on a variety of factors, such as the form of chromium present, the concentration of chromium in the water, and the availability and cost of treatment technologies [6].
In conclusion, there are often differences in the levels and sources of chromium in drinking water across different countries, as well as differences in the regulation and treatment of chromium in drinking water. Understanding these differences can provide insights into the impacts of chromium on human health and inform strategies for protecting drinking water quality.
[1] World Health Organization (WHO). (2011). Chromium in Drinking-water. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
[2] United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (2017). Chromium in Drinking Water. Washington, D.C.: United States Environmental Protection Agency.
[3] European Union (EU). (2013). Directive 2013/39/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 August 2013 amending Directive 98/83/EC on the quality of water intended for human consumption. Brussels, Belgium: European Union.
[4] United Nations (UN). (2017). International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade: Water for Life. New York, NY: United Nations.
[5] International Council for Science (ICSU). (2018). Climate Change and the Quality of Water Resources. Paris, France: International Council for Science.
[6] World Health Organization (WHO). (2018). Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
Share this research on social media
Facebook
Twitter
LinkedIn
See all Research on Chromium