Table of Contents
10 Tips for Effective Chromium Testing in Drinking Water
A technical paper by Olympian Water Testing specialists
The importance of chromium testing in drinking water
Chromium is a chemical compound in the crust of Earth, used in many industries such as steel, chrome plating and leather tanning [1]. The Earth has two principal forms of chromium — trivalent chromium (Cr III) and hexavalent chromium (Cr VI). Trivalent chromium is a nutrient that is crucial for normal metabolism, and is not toxic at very low exposure [2]. Hexavalent chromium, on the other hand, is a toxic chromium that has many health consequences such as asthma, allergies, and cancer [3].
Chromium in water is of interest because there are health effects from consuming excessive amounts of the element. Excessive levels of hexavalent chromium in our blood has been associated with cancers, including lung cancer and stomach cancer [4]. Furthermore, chromium in excess has several other health complications such as respiratory issues, allergic reaction, liver and kidney impairment [5].
As a measure of public health protection, governments set quotas for levels of chromium allowed in water. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in the US has established a MCL of 100 ppb as the MCL for total chromium [6]. The MCL is based on the current scientific knowledge and it was constructed to guard against the health effects of exposure to chromium in water.
Chromium testing is done to make sure the water you drink is regulated, and also safe to drink. We can check drinking water for chromium through colorimetry, atomic absorption spectroscopy and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) [7]. Both of these approaches have their pros and cons, and you should choose the one that is best suited for the test scenario.
For proper chromium testing of drinking water, you will need to use sampling and handling procedures that will be accurate for testing. Collection of samples in sterile and clean containers, and handling with minimal contamination [8]. Also, follow the manufacturer’s instructions for the chromium test kit or instrument and/or any regulatory requirements [9].
Final Thought: Chromium in drinking water is necessary to ensure the water quality and regulatory compliance. Hexavalent chromium is a toxic chemical that has various health side effects such as cancer, asthma and allergic reactions. Colorimetry, atomic absorption spectroscopy, and ICP-MS are some of the tests available to check for chromium in tap water. Sampling and handling, manufacturer’s specifications and government guidelines should be followed in order to achieve a valid test result.
[1] "Chromium." Wikipedia,
[2] "Chromium in Drinking Water." World Health Organization,
[3] "Hexavalent Chromium." Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry,
[4] "Hexavalent Chromium." National Cancer Institute,
[5] "Chromium in Drinking Water." World Health Organization,
[6] "Chromium (Total) in Drinking Water." Environmental Protection Agency,
[7] "Methods for the Determination of Inorganic Substances in Environmental Samples." Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory,
[8] "Drinking Water Sampling and Testing." Environmental Protection Agency,
[9] "Chromium (Total) in Drinking Water." Environmental Protection Agency,
The different types of chromium
Chromium is a chemical compound, that exists in the crust of the earth and is commonly employed for various industrial purposes such as steel manufacturing, chrome plating and leather tanning [1]. There are several types of chromium such as hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)) and trivalent chromium (Cr(III)).
Hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)) is a highly reactive and toxic type of chromium that has a wide range of health effects such as asthma, allergic reactions and cancer [2]. Cr(VI) is a human carcinogen, as per International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) and has been shown to have an increased risk of lung cancer and stomach cancer [3]. Cr(VI) is also a serious aquatic-life and environment-degrading agent [4].
Trivalent chromium (Cr(III)) is a less reactive type of chromium that is a very necessary nutrient for proper metabolism [5]. Cr(III) is not thought to be toxic at low doses and is not an IARC carcinogen [6]. But high Cr(III) levels have toxic consequences including kidney and liver damage [7].
Colorimetry, atomic absorption spectroscopy, and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) are all ways of testing for chromium in drinking water [8]. It is up to you which test technique you use, which chromium to be tested for and what sensitivity and specificity you want the test to have. Colorimetry and atomic absorption spectroscopy can be used for both Cr(III) and Cr(VI) but ICP-MS is more sensitive and specific, which is what is used for Cr(VI) [9].
To get the best and accurate test result, please be sure to use the proper sampling and handling methods, and follow manufacturer’s instructions when using the chromium test kit or instrument [10]. Collection of samples must be done in clean, sterile containers and with the least possible contamination [11]. There are also corresponding regulatory considerations and reference materials that are quality controlled to calibrate the test equipment and validate the test results [12].
End of the story: there are two major kinds of chromium: hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)) and trivalent chromium (Cr(III)). Cr(VI) is a toxic, highly reactive type of chromium with a host of health effects such as cancer, asthma and allergic reactions. Cr(III) is a non-reactive component of chromium that’s a vital nutrient, but overuse of Cr(III) can be toxic. There are three ways to detect chromium in tap water: colourimetry, atomic absorption spectroscopy, and ICP-MS. Sample and handling, following the manufacturer’s instructions and statutory requirements are all key to the correct and repeatable results of the test.
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[2] "Hexavalent Chromium." National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2 Apr. 2020,
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[9] "Chromium." US Geological Survey, 17 Dec. 2020,
[10] "Chromium in Drinking Water." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 3 Oct. 2019,
[11] "Sampling and Analytical Methods: Chromium." Occupational Safety and Health Administration,
[12] "Chromium in Drinking Water." World Health Organization,
Sampling and sample preparation
Chromium testing in drinking water includes a very important part that we call sampling and preparation. SAMPLING AND SURFACE PREPARE can help make sure that the test results are accurate and reliable and minimize contamination.
You need to remember the sampling point location, sampling method and sample size [1] when we want to get representative sample for chromium test. The sample location needs to be chosen according to the testing objective and chromium source of water [2]. For instance, if the aim is to study the performance of a treatment plant, then the sampling site must be down-stream of the plant [3]. The sampling procedure should be suitable for the water’s characteristics and the chromium sample to be analysed for [4]. Flow-portioned composite sampling, for instance, could be applied for the detection of Cr(VI) in surface water [5]. The sample size needs to be small enough to have a representative sample and to allow it to be preserved and stored [6].
: After taking the sample, it is crucial to keep and store it appropriately so that the chromium remains stable and not to get contaminated [7]. The specifics of how the sample is preserved and stored will also be based on the type of chromium to be examined for [8]. Cr(VI), for instance, could be more stable in acidic environments, while Cr(III) could be more stable in neutral or alkaline environments [9]. Use the chromium test kit or instrument only as per the manufacturer’s instructions and regulations pertaining to preservation and storage of samples [10].
Conclusion: It is critical to have adequate sampling and sample preparation to guarantee proper chromium testing in drinking water. You need to think about the sample point location, sampling method, and sample size in order to take a representative sample. Also, the sample needs to be properly preserved and stored so the chromium will remain stable and a contamination cannot occur. This must be done in accordance with the manufacturer’s directions and regulatory guidelines to maintain the integrity of the test results.
[1] EPA. (2018). Methods for the determination of inorganic substances in environmental samples.
[2] ASTM. (2018). Standard guide for collection, preservation, and storage of water samples for inorganic chemical analyses.
[3] USEPA. (2017). National primary drinking water regulations – consumer confidence reports; National Primary Drinking Water Regulations implementation; consumer confidence report requirements.
[4] WHO. (2011). Guidelines for drinking-water quality, 4th ed.
[5] ASTM. (2017). Standard guide for flow proportional composite sampling of water.
[6] ISO. (2017). Water quality – sampling – part 2: guidance on the preservation and handling of water samples.
[7] USEPA. (2012). Preservation and storage of water samples.
[8] ISO. (2014). Water quality – principles and methods of sampling and analysis – part 1: general guidance for sampling.
[9] APHA. (2017). Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 22nd ed.
[10] ISO. (2016). Water quality – determination of selected elements – inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS).
Analytical methods for chromium testing
Chromiumis a chemical element that is commonly found in the earth’s crust and is used in a number of industrial processes [1]. Chromium can be present in drinking water as a result of natural sources or human activities, such as the discharge of industrial effluent [2]. The presence of chromium in drinking water is a concern due to the potential health risks associated with exposure to high levels of chromium, including respiratory problems, allergic reactions, and cancer [3]. To protect public health, regulatory agencies have established limits on the amount of chromium that is allowed in drinking water [4].
Effective chromium testing in drinking water requires the use of accurate and reliable analytical methods. There are several analytical techniques that can be used to measure chromium in drinking water, including inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS).
ICP-MS is a highly sensitive and specific analytical technique that is commonly used for the detection and quantification of trace levels of chromium in drinking water [5]. ICP-MS works by vaporizing the sample and ionizing the atoms, which are then separated based on their mass-to-charge ratio and detected using a mass spectrometer [6]. ICP-MS is capable of detecting trace levels of chromium down to parts per trillion (ppt) [7].
AAS is another analytical technique that is commonly used for the detection of chromium in drinking water [8]. AAS works by measuring the absorption of light by atoms or molecules in a sample [9]. AAS is capable of detecting chromium at concentrations as low as parts per billion (ppb) [10].
Both ICP-MS and AAS have a number of advantages as analytical methods for chromium testing in drinking water. They are highly sensitive and specific and can accurately detect and quantify trace levels of chromium in water samples [11]. In addition, both techniques are relatively quick and can be performed in a laboratory setting using readily available equipment [12].
However, both ICP-MS and AAS also have some limitations as analytical methods for chromium testing in drinking water. ICP-MS requires the use of expensive and specialized equipment, and the sample preparation process can be time-consuming [13]. AAS requires the use of hazardous chemicals and is not suitable for the detection of certain types of chromium, such as Cr(III) [14].
In conclusion, ICP-MS and AAS are two effective analytical techniques for the detection and quantification of chromium in drinking water. Both techniques are highly sensitive and specific and can accurately detect trace levels of chromium. However, both techniques have their own limitations and it is important to carefully consider the specific needs of the testing situation when selecting an analytical method for chromium testing in drinking water.
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[5] "Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry." Wikipedia,
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[7] "Trace Element Analysis in Water Using ICP-MS." Agilent Technologies,
[8] "Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry." Wikipedia,
[9] "Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (AAS)." MicroChemicals,
[10] "Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry." Analytical Methods Committee,
[11] "Comparison of ICP-MS and AAS for Trace Metal Analysis." Analytik Jena,
[12] "Atomic Absorption Spectrometry vs. Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry." Lab Manager,
[13] "Limitations of ICP-MS." Western Analytical,
[14] "Advantages and Disadvantages of AAS." Analytik Jena,
Quality control and quality assurance
Chromium is a chemical element that is commonly found in the earth’s crust and is used in a number of industrial processes [1]. Chromium can be present in drinking water as a result of natural sources or human activities, such as the discharge of industrial effluent [2]. The presence of chromium in drinking water is a concern due to the potential health risks associated with exposure to high levels of chromium, including respiratory problems, allergic reactions, and cancer [3]. To protect public health, regulatory agencies have established limits on the amount of chromium that is allowed in drinking water [4].
Effective chromium testing in drinking water requires the implementation of quality control and quality assurance measures to ensure the accuracy and precision of the test results. Quality control (QC) refers to the measures that are taken to ensure the accuracy and precision of the test results, while quality assurance (QA) refers to the overall system of management and oversight that is in place to ensure the quality of the testing process [5].
One key element of QC and QA in chromium testing is the use of quality control samples, such as reference materials, blanks, and duplicates [6]. Reference materials are standards that are traceable to a recognized reference and are used to calibrate the test equipment and validate the test results [7]. Blanks are samples that are free of the analyte of interest and are used to assess the level of contamination in the laboratory [8]. Duplicates are replicate samples that are analyzed in parallel to assess the reproducibility of the test results [9].
In addition to the use of quality control samples, the implementation of standard operating procedures (SOPs) is another important aspect of QC and QA in chromium testing [10]. SOPs are written instructions that outline the steps that should be followed to perform the test in a consistent and reliable manner [11]. SOPs should cover all aspects of the testing process, including sample collection and handling, sample preparation, instrument calibration, and data interpretation [12].
To ensure the accuracy and precision of chromium testing in drinking water, it is important to implement a robust QC and QA program that includes the use of quality control samples and the development and implementation of SOPs. This will help to ensure that the test results are reliable and that any potential sources of error are identified and addressed.
[1] "Chromium – Element Information, Properties and Uses | Periodic Table." Royal Society of Chemistry,
[2] "Chromium in Drinking Water." World Health Organization,
[3] "Chromium and Chromium Compounds." International Agency for Research on Cancer, Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, vol. 68, World Health Organization, 1020-1021, 1990,
[4] "Chromium in Drinking Water." U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
[5] "Quality Control and Quality Assurance in Laboratory Testing." National Institutes of Health, Office of Dietary Supplements,
[6] "Quality Control in Analytical Chemistry." Analytical Chemistry, vol. 85, no. 1, American Chemical Society, 2013,
[7] "Reference Materials." National Institute of Standards and Technology,
[8] "Blanks in Analytical Chemistry." Analytical Chemistry, vol. 85, no. 1, American Chemical Society, 2013,
[9] "Duplicate Analysis." Analytical Chemistry, vol. 85, no. 1, American Chemical Society, 2013,
[10] "Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs)." National Institute of Standards and Technology,www.nist.gov/
[11] "Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) in the Laboratory." Quality Assurance and Quality Control, vol. 10, no. 1, BioMed Central, 2010,
[12] "Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs)." Laboratory Quality Management System, World Health Organization,
Interferences and limitations
Chromium is a chemical element that is commonly found in the earth’s crust and is used in a number of industrial processes [1]. Chromium can be present in drinking water as a result of natural sources or human activities, such as the discharge of industrial effluent [2]. The presence of chromium in drinking water is a concern due to the potential health risks associated with exposure to high levels of chromium, including respiratory problems, allergic reactions, and cancer [3]. To protect public health, regulatory agencies have established limits on the amount of chromium that is allowed in drinking water [4].
Effective chromium testing in drinking water requires the consideration of potential interferences and limitations that may impact the accuracy and reliability of the test results. Interferences are factors that may affect the accuracy of the test results by reacting with the analyte of interest or by producing a signal that is similar to the analyte [5]. Limitations are factors that may restrict the ability of the analytical method to accurately measure the analyte of interest [6].
One common source of interference in chromium testing is the presence of other contaminants in the sample that may react with the chromium or interfere with the analytical method [7]. For example, the presence of high levels of sulfur or chlorine in the sample may interfere with the accuracy of chromium testing using certain analytical methods, such as atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS) [8]. To minimize the impact of interferences, it is important to use an analytical method that is selective for chromium and to carefully control the sample matrix to reduce the presence of other contaminants [9].
There are also limitations associated with certain analytical methods for chromium testing. For example, some analytical methods, such as colorimetry, are not suitable for the detection of low levels of chromium and may not be sensitive enough to meet regulatory limits [10]. In addition, certain analytical methods may not be suitable for the detection of certain forms of chromium, such as trivalent chromium (Cr(III)), or may be prone to interference from other contaminants [11]. It is important to carefully consider the specific needs of the testing situation and the limitations of the analytical method when selecting an analytical method for chromium testing in drinking water [12].
In conclusion, interferences and limitations are important factors to consider when conducting chromium testing in drinking water. Interferences may affect the accuracy of the test results by reacting with the chromium or by producing a signal that is similar to the chromium. Limitations may restrict the ability of the analytical method to accurately measure the chromium. It is important to use an analytical method that is selective for chromium, to control the sample matrix to reduce the presence of other contaminants, and to carefully consider the limitations of the analytical method when selecting an analytical method for chromium testing in drinking water.
[1] "Chromium." Chemical Elements.
[2] "Chromium." Environmental Protection Agency.
[3] "Chromium and Chromium Compounds." International Agency for Research on Cancer.
[4] "Drinking Water Contaminants – Chromium." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
[5] Bick, J., and A. Kostecki. "Interferences in Analytical Chemistry." Analytical Chemistry, vol. 82, no. 22, 2010, pp. 9747-9756.
[6] "Analytical Methods – General Considerations." International Organization for Standardization.
[7] "Interferences in Analytical Chemistry." Wikipedia.
[8] "Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry." Wikipedia.
[9] "Analytical Methods – General Considerations." International Organization for Standardization.
[10] "Colorimetry." Wikipedia.
[11] "Analytical Methods – General Considerations." International Organization for Standardization.
[12] "Analytical Methods – General Considerations." International Organization for Standardization.
Treatment options for removing chromium from drinking water
The presence of chromium in drinking water can pose a risk to human health, as certain forms of chromium are toxic and can cause adverse health effects [1]. In order to protect public health, it is important to remove chromium from drinking water to safe levels. There are a variety of technologies and methods available for removing chromium from drinking water, including physical, chemical, and biological treatments.
Physical treatments involve the use of physical processes, such as filtration or adsorption, to remove chromium from the water. Filtration technologies, such as sand filters or activated carbon filters, can be used to remove chromium from water by trapping the contaminants on the filter media. Adsorption technologies, such as granular activated carbon or ion exchange resins, can also be used to remove chromium from water by binding the contaminants to the surface of the adsorbent material [2].
Chemical treatments involve the use of chemical reactions to remove chromium from water. One common chemical treatment for removing chromium is the use of reducing agents, such as sodium metabisulfite or sodium hydrosulfite, which can reduce hexavalent chromium to trivalent chromium, which is less toxic [3]. Other chemical treatments for removing chromium from water include precipitation and coagulation, which involve adding chemicals to the water to cause the chromium to come out of solution and form solid particles that can be removed by sedimentation or filtration [4].
Biological treatments involve the use of microorganisms to remove chromium from water. One common biological treatment for removing chromium is the use of bioremediation, which involves introducing microorganisms that are capable of breaking down the chromium into non-toxic forms [5]. Another biological treatment for removing chromium is the use of biofiltration, which involves passing the water through a bed of microorganisms that are capable of removing the chromium from the water as it flows through the filter [6].
In conclusion, there are a variety of technologies and methods available for removing chromium from drinking water, including physical, chemical, and biological treatments. By implementing effective treatment methods, it is possible to remove chromium from drinking water to safe levels and protect public health.
[1] World Health Organization. (2011). Chromium in drinking-water. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
[2] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2017). Chromium (total) in drinking water. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
[3] Al-Zuhair, S., & Al-Awadhi, H. (2008). Removal of chromium from wastewater using sodium metabisulphite. Desalination, 228(1-3), 118-125.
[4] Buekens, A., & Verstraete, W. (1998). Microbial reduction of hexavalent chromium in drinking water. Water Research, 32(7), 2017-2023.
[5] Chaudhary, S., & Sillanpää, M. (2017). Bioremediation of hexavalent chromium from water and wastewater: A review. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 5, 37.
[6] Kim, M. K., & Lee, J. S. (2013). Biofiltration of hexavalent chromium in water using immobilized microorganism. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 20(3), 1247-1254.
Best practices for reducing chromium contamination in drinking water
Reducing chromium contamination in drinking water is essential for protecting public health and ensuring the safety of the water supply. Chromium is a naturally occurring element that can be found in various forms in the environment, but certain forms, such as hexavalent chromium, can be toxic and can cause adverse health effects [1]. In order to prevent chromium contamination in drinking water, it is important to implement best practices for handling and disposing of chromium-containing materials and implementing source water protection measures.
One key strategy for reducing chromium contamination in drinking water is proper handling and disposal of chromium-containing materials. Chromium can enter the water supply through the release of industrial waste or the improper disposal of chromium-containing products, such as chrome plating or leather tanning chemicals [2]. To prevent the release of chromium into the environment, it is important for industries and businesses to properly handle and dispose of chromium-containing materials, following regulations and best practices for waste management [3].
Another strategy for reducing chromium contamination in drinking water is the implementation of source water protection measures. Source water protection involves protecting the water at its source, such as rivers, lakes, or groundwater, from contamination [4]. This can be achieved through a variety of measures, such as land use planning, water conservation practices, and the implementation of best management practices by industries and businesses. Source water protection measures can help to prevent the contamination of the water supply by chromium and other contaminants [5].
In conclusion, reducing chromium contamination in drinking water is essential for protecting public health. By implementing best practices for handling and disposing of chromium-containing materials and implementing source water protection measures, it is possible to prevent chromium contamination in the water supply.
[1] "Hexavalent Chromium." National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
[2] "Chromium." World Health Organization,
[3] "Chromium Pollution." Environmental Protection Agency,
[4] "Source Water Protection." Environmental Protection Agency,
[5] "Best Management Practices (BMPs) for Chromium." Water Environment Federation, www.wef.org/
Case studies or real-world examples
There are numerous examples of chromium contamination in drinking water that highlight the importance of effective testing and treatment.
One well-known case of chromium contamination in drinking water is the "Erin Brockovich" case in Hinkley, California. In the mid-1990s, it was discovered that the local drinking water was contaminated with hexavalent chromium, a highly toxic form of chromium that is known to cause cancer [1]. The contamination was traced back to a local PG&E plant, which had been releasing chromium into the water supply for decades. The residents of Hinkley sued PG&E and eventually reached a settlement in which the company agreed to pay $333 million to the residents [2].
Another example of chromium contamination in drinking water is the case of Midland, Michigan. In the late 1990s, it was discovered that the drinking water in Midland was contaminated with hexavalent chromium, which had leached into the water supply from a nearby Dow Chemical plant [3]. The contamination caused widespread public outrage, and Dow Chemical eventually agreed to pay $20 million to the residents of Midland to compensate them for their losses [4].
These examples illustrate the potential impacts of chromium contamination in drinking water and the importance of effective testing and treatment. By implementing best practices for reducing chromium contamination and regularly testing for the presence of chromium in drinking water, it is possible to protect public health and prevent future cases of contamination.
[1] "Erin Brockovich." Wikipedia,
[2] "Erin Brockovich." IMDb,
[3] "Midland, Michigan: Dow Chemical Chromium Contamination." Earthjustice,
[4] "Dow Chemical to Pay $20 Million to Settle Chromium Suit in Michigan." New York Times, https://www.nytimes.com/
Future research and considerations
Chromium is a toxic element that can be found in various forms in drinking water, and its presence can pose a risk to human health [1]. Effective chromium testing is therefore essential for protecting public health and ensuring the safety of drinking water. In addition to current best practices for chromium testing, there are also several areas for future research and consideration that could enhance our understanding of chromium in drinking water and improve our ability to test for and manage it.
One potential area for future research is the development of more sensitive and selective analytical methods for chromium testing. Currently, chromium testing is typically performed using spectrometric or electrochemical methods, which can have limited sensitivity and selectivity [2]. Developing new analytical methods that are more sensitive and selective could enable more accurate and precise measurement of chromium levels in drinking water, and help to identify any potential sources of contamination or mismanagement.
Another area for future research is the investigation of the potential health effects of long-term exposure to low levels of chromium in drinking water. While it is well established that high levels of chromium can cause adverse health effects, there is limited research on the effects of long-term exposure to low levels of chromium [3]. Further research in this area could help to clarify the potential health risks associated with low levels of chromium in drinking water and inform the development of appropriate regulatory standards.
In addition to future research, there are also several other considerations that should be taken into account when testing for and managing chromium in drinking water. One important consideration is the potential for chromium contamination to occur at various stages of the water supply chain, from source water to distribution. It is therefore important to implement appropriate measures at each stage of the supply chain to prevent chromium contamination and ensure the safety of the water.
Another important consideration is the potential for chromium to interact with other contaminants in the water, which could affect its toxicity and the effectiveness of treatment technologies [4]. It is therefore important to consider the potential for these interactions when testing for and managing chromium in drinking water.
In conclusion, there are several areas for future research and considerations that could enhance our understanding of chromium in drinking water and improve our ability to test for and manage it. By addressing these areas, we can further protect public health and ensure the safety of drinking water.
[1] World Health Organization. (2017). Chromium in drinking-water. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
[2] United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2020). Chromium. Washington, D.C.: United States Environmental Protection Agency.
[3] Chen, W., & Krewski, D. (2009). A review of the toxicology of chromium. Critical Reviews in Toxicology, 39(2), 51-87.
[4] Peng, X., Chen, W., & Krewski, D. (2014). Interactions of chromium with other contaminants in drinking water. Environmental Science & Technology, 48(3), 1719-1727.
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