Table of Contents
Understanding the Different Methods of Lead Removal and Their Testing Requirements
A technical paper by Olympian Water Testing specialists
The effectiveness of different lead removal methods
Lead is a poisonous metal that was traditionally used for everything from plumbing pipes to more recent industrial equipment [1]. Even though lead pipes are largely out of the market, old structures and houses may still have lead pipes in their plumbing [2]. This is a serious health risk, as lead can seep into the water supply and has many health consequences especially for children and pregnant women [1]. As such, the problem of lead in pipes must be fixed to keep the public healthy and maintain the drinking water of the country safe.
There are various methods of lead cleaning from pipes and these all work differently to remove the lead from the water source [3]. To decide which is the best approach in a given situation, you have to think about how well each approach works, and what might make it effective.
Pipe replacement is one of the ways to get rid of lead from pipes [3]. That means literally digging up the old lead pipes and reusing them for new pipes made from another material like copper or PVC [3]. Replacing pipes will totally remove the lead from the plumbing, because you are taking away the lead source [3]. But it can be expensive and unsettling as it has to be sucked up and replaced [3].
Chemical treatment [3] is another way of getting rid of lead from pipes. That involves chemicals to dissolve or eat away the lead from the pipes [3]. Chemical treatment might be helpful in flushing lead from the pipes but it is corrosive and can also destroy the pipes in the long run [3]. It is also expensive as one has to buy the specialized chemicals and apparatus [3].
The third solution to lead removal from pipes is filtration [4]. This is by using a filter to wash the lead out of the water while it goes through the plumbing [4]. Filtration can be an effective way to remove lead from water if done right, but be sure to get a filter with a lead specific purpose [4]. Additionally, filters might have to be switched frequently in order to stay working [4].
Various lead removal procedures may work in a number of ways, depending on the type and amount of lead being removed [3]. For instance, if lead content is high, replacement of the pipe may be the best solution because lead is completely removed from the system [3]. For low levels of lead, chemical treatment or filtration is better suited [3].
ConclusionThe success of the various lead extraction techniques vary depending on many factors, such as lead type and concentration. We can remove lead from drinking water and maintain public health, if we think hard about these points and opt for the best available technique.
[1] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2019). Lead.
[2] Environmental Protection Agency. (2018). Lead in Drinking Water.
[3] Lead Poisoning Prevention Branch. (n.d.). Lead Pipe Replacement.
[4] Environmental Protection Agency. (2018). Water Filters for Lead.
The costs and benefits of different lead removal methods
Lead is a toxic metal used long ago for a lot of things including plumbing pipes [1]. Although lead in pipes has mostly been eliminated, old buildings and houses still have lead pipes in their plumbing [2]. This poses a real health risk because lead can leach into the water and have various diseases especially in children and pregnant women [1]. This is why it is vital to get rid of lead in pipes in order to keep public health at bay and the drinking water at its best.
There are many alternatives to take lead from pipes with their own expense and pros and cons [3]. To decide which approach is right for you, the prices of each approach must be considered.
Pipe replacement is one way to get rid of lead from pipes [3]. This can be physically removed from the old lead pipes and put in the new pipes of another material (Copper, PVC, etc) [3]. Replaced pipes work to eliminate lead entirely from the pipes but is very expensive since you have to buy the new pipes and do the installation [3]. Moreover, pipe replacement is noisy because the pipes need to be excavated and replaced and also affect the adjacent areas [3].
Another way to get rid of lead from pipes is through pipe lining [3]. That’s done by putting a fresh lining inside the existing lead pipes to keep the lead from leaking into the water supply [3]. Pipe lining is less intrusive and disruptive than pipe replacement and in most cases, cheaper as there is no need to buy new pipes [3]. But it can’t always get the lead out completely from the pipes, and may need to be kept maintained to keep it in good working condition [3].
The third method of cleaning pipes of lead is chemical treatment [3]. That means chemicals to dissolve or flush lead from the pipes [3]. : Chemical treatments are effective in getting lead off the pipes, but they can also be corrosive and eventually damage the pipes [3]. It’s also expensive since you have to buy the specialised chemicals and tools [3].
Different lead removal methods come with various prices and advantages — and that is determined at a case-by-case basis. Pipe replacement, for instance, might be more expensive in the beginning but also benefits in the long run — for instance, public health, property values [4]. In contrast, pipe lining or chemical treatment can be more economical upfront but still needs maintenance and is less protected than total pipe replacement [4].
Overall, costs & benefits of various lead removal techniques are different depending on a range of considerations, from initial costs, ongoing maintenance fees, to possible outcomes (better public health, higher property value, etc.). It is only after considering these things that you can choose the lead removal method that’s most suitable for you.
[1] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2019). Lead.
[2] Environmental Protection Agency. (2018). Lead in Drinking Water.
[3] Lead Poisoning Prevention Branch. (n.d.). Lead Pipe Replacement.
[4] National Lead Information Center. (n.d.). The Benefits of Removing Lead Pipes.
The suitability of different lead removal methods for different situations
Lead is a poisonous metal that was once widely used for all kinds of stuff such as plumbing pipes [1]. Although lead pipe has been mostly replaced, the plumbing in older buildings and homes are still used by lead pipes [2]. That’s a serious health risk as lead can enter the water supply and cause all sorts of diseases especially in children and women who are pregnant [1].
We can remove lead from pipes using several methods that have pros and cons [3]. Depending on which lead type and level of lead is present, pipes’ age and quality, and resources available to make an appropriate decision, the right method might be the best option for a particular application [3].
One of the solutions to get rid of lead from pipes is pipe replacement [3]. This means taking the old lead pipes away from the wall and putting in new pipes from a different material like copper or PVC [3]. This technique works to clean all the lead from the plumbing system but is expensive and messy because the pipes need to be excavated and rerouted [3].
A second process of lead elimination from pipes is pipe lining [3]. This is done by adding a new lining to the old lead pipes which covers the lead and stops it from getting in the water supply [3]. Pipe lining is less destructive and disruptive than pipe replacement but it is not always successful at completely removing the lead from the pipes [3].
There is a third lead removal procedure from pipes: chemical treatment [3]. That’s the chemical removal of lead from the pipes or removing it from the pipes [3]. Chemical treatment works very well to get rid of lead from pipes, but is also corrosive and can eventually destroy the pipes [3].
Choosing lead removal from pipes means knowing what type of lead is present in pipes and how much lead is present [3]. For instance, if lead concentration is very high, replacement of pipes could be the best option because the lead is removed from the system [3]. When the concentration of lead is small, pipe lining or chemical treatment can be better [3].
It is also a good idea to look at the pipes’ age and condition when choosing a lead removal service [3]. In the case of clean pipes pipe lining or chemical treatment can be more suitable as it is less invasive and less prone to contaminating the pipes [3]. If your pipes are old and need replacing in bad shape, pipe replacement is possible since lead is completely removed from the system and the pipes are replaced [3].
Finally, there are resources available which is also a consideration when choosing a lead removal technique [3]. Replacement of pipes is often the most expensive as you will need to buy new pipes and labor to put in them [3]. Pipe lining and chemical treatments are usually less expensive, but can still be bought as specialized machines and chemicals [3].
Ultimately, which approach is right for each lead removal process also comes down to a lot of variables such as what type and level of lead, age and state of pipes, and resources. Given enough consideration to these, it is possible to choose the right lead removal procedure for a specific case [3].
Aside from these factors, you must make sure that the lead removal process chosen is tested to make sure that it works [4]. Whether it’s taking water or soil samples and testing them for lead, or employing equipment to determine the lead content of the pipes [4]. Please be careful to conduct testing correctly and use the right testing apparatus to get proper results [4].
Not only that, but you should also observe safety guidelines while conducting lead water testing and extraction [5]. These could include protection clothing and equipment including gloves and masks, as well as proper disposal for all materials that contact lead [5]. Failure to implement the safety measures may result in worker and public exposure to lead which can be health-threatening [5].
To sum up, which lead extraction method is suitable depends on a wide range of considerations, such as the type and amount of lead involved, the age and state of pipes, and resources. : This too must be tested and secured to the correct level of safety in order to ensure the success and safety of the selected lead removal process.
[1] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2019). Lead.
[2] Environmental Protection Agency. (2018). Lead in Drinking Water.
[3] Lead Poisoning Prevention Branch. (n.d.). Lead Pipe Replacement.
[4] Environmental Protection Agency. (2018). Testing for Lead in Your Drinking Water.
[5] Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (2017). Lead.
The environmental impacts of different lead removal methods
The ecological footprints of various lead removal technologies are also variable. Lead is an emery which can leach into drinking water via pipes, fittings and solder [1]. Protect public health by purifying drinking water with the right techniques [2]. But the impact on the environment from various lead removal processes could vary (air and water quality, for example).
An environmental consequence of lead-deconstruction processes is emissions into the atmosphere. For some of the treatments, for example, the corrosion inhibitors, chemicals may be sprayed into the atmosphere as part of the process [3]. They can be toxic to human health or the environment, and can pollute the air. Moreover, they can be generated and transported such chemicals may emit pollutants into the air [4].
There is another environmental impact to lead elimination processes: discharge of contaminants into the water. In some processes, like filtering or purification process, wastewater may be produced in the course of treatment [5]. Such wastewater could be polluted or polluted in a way that causes harm to fish or changes water quality. Additionally, sewage disposal could be harmful for the environment too, depending on the technique [6].
Last but not least, the processing of lead waste arising from lead production can be environmentalally damaging. Lead is an eminent toxic metal, which can harm humans and the environment when left to its own devices [7]. So lead waste must be disposed of responsibly to avoid any future negative effects on the environment.
The environmental impacts of all lead removal procedures can be very different. Some of the methods might be very low-impact, but others are harmful to air and water. There should be due consideration of the environmental impact of various lead removal methods so that the right one is chosen in a particular circumstance.
ConclusionThe environmental implications of alternative lead removal techniques should also be weighed when deciding which treatment technique to use. Others, although more successful at flushing the lead out of the water, may be less friendly to the environment. Meanwhile, less-toxic techniques might not remove as much lead. Hence, one should balance risks and rewards when considering different lead removal techniques to decide which one is best for an instance.
[1] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Drinking water contaminants: Lead and copper.
[2] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2020). Lead.
[3] American Water Works Association. (n.d.). Corrosion inhibitors.
[4] Environmental Defense Fund. (n.d.). Protecting communities from lead in drinking water.
[5] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Drinking water treatment: Coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation.
[6] World Health Organization. (2017). Lead in drinking-water.
[7] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Lead and lead compounds.
The role of lead testing in identifying the most appropriate lead removal method
Lead water testing is an essential step in identifying the most appropriate lead removal method. Lead is a toxic metal that can leach into drinking water from pipes, fittings, and solder [1]. In order to protect public health, it is important to remove lead from drinking water through appropriate treatment methods [2]. However, the effectiveness of different lead removal methods can vary depending on the type and concentration of lead present, as well as the condition of the pipes [3]. Therefore, lead testing is crucial for identifying the most appropriate lead removal method for a given situation.
There are several ways in which lead testing can be used to identify the most appropriate lead removal method. One common approach is to use lead testing to assess the type and concentration of lead present in the water. Different lead removal methods may be more or less effective at removing certain types of lead, or at removing lead at different concentrations [4]. Therefore, understanding the specific characteristics of the lead present in the water can help to identify the most appropriate lead removal method.
In addition to assessing the type and concentration of lead present, lead testing can also be used to evaluate the effectiveness of different lead removal methods. This can be done through the use of controlled experiments or field trials, in which different lead removal methods are applied to samples of water with known lead concentrations [5]. By comparing the results of these experiments or trials, it is possible to determine which methods are most effective at removing lead from the water.
Overall, lead testing plays a critical role in identifying the most appropriate lead removal method. By assessing the type and concentration of lead present in the water and evaluating the effectiveness of different methods, lead testing can help to ensure that the most appropriate treatment is chosen to protect public health.
[1] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Drinking water contaminants: Lead and copper.
[2] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2020). Lead.
[3] American Water Works Association. (n.d.). Lead in drinking water.
[4] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Drinking water treatment: Coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation. Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/
[5] National Research Council. (2004). Lead in drinking water. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
The impact of lead removal on the performance and longevity of pipes
Lead removal methods can have a significant impact on the performance and longevity of pipes. Lead is a toxic metal that can leach into drinking water from pipes, fittings, and solder [1]. In order to protect public health, it is important to remove lead from drinking water through appropriate treatment methods [2]. However, the methods used to remove lead can have different effects on the pipes themselves.
One common method of lead removal is the use of corrosion inhibitors. Corrosion inhibitors are chemicals that form a protective layer on the inside of pipes, which helps to reduce the leaching of lead into the water [3]. These chemicals can be effective at reducing lead levels in the water, but they may also have negative impacts on the pipes. Some corrosion inhibitors can cause pipes to become more brittle over time, which may lead to increased risk of breaks or leaks [4]. In addition, corrosion inhibitors may not be effective on all types of pipes, particularly older pipes that have already experienced significant corrosion [5].
Another method of lead removal is the use of filters or purification systems. These systems can remove lead from the water as it passes through the filter or purification system [6]. However, these systems may not be suitable for all situations, particularly if the water has high levels of lead or if the pipes are in poor condition [7]. In addition, these systems may require regular maintenance and replacement, which can add to the long-term costs of lead removal [8].
Finally, the replacement of lead pipes is another option for lead removal. This method involves removing the lead pipes and replacing them with pipes made of a different material, such as copper or plastic [9]. While this method is effective at removing lead from the water, it can be expensive and may require significant disruption to the water distribution system [10]. In addition, the replacement of lead pipes may not be feasible in all situations, particularly if the pipes are in hard-to-reach locations or if the water utility lacks the resources to undertake the replacement [11].
Overall, the impact of lead removal on the performance and longevity of pipes depends on the method used. Corrosion inhibitors can be effective at reducing lead levels in the water, but may also have negative impacts on the pipes. Filters and purification systems can remove lead from the water, but may not be suitable for all situations. The replacement of lead pipes is effective at removing lead, but can be expensive and may not be feasible in all situations.
[1] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Drinking water contaminants: Lead and copper.
[2] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2020). Lead.
[3] American Water Works Association. (n.d.). Corrosion inhibitors.
[4] National Research Council. (2004). Lead in drinking water. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
[5] American Water Works Association. (n.d.). Lead in drinking water.
[6] Environmental Defense Fund. (n.d.). Protecting communities from lead in drinking water.
[7] World Health Organization. (2017). Lead in drinking-water.
[8] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Drinking water treatment: Coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation.
[9] American Water Works Association. (n.d.). Lead service line replacement.
[10] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Lead service line replacement.
[11] American Water Works Association. (n.d.). Pipe materials.
The role of government regulations in addressing lead contamination and removal
Government regulations play a crucial role in addressing lead contamination and removal. Lead is a toxic metal that can have serious health consequences, particularly for young children and pregnant women [1]. It is commonly found in drinking water as a result of corrosion of lead pipes, fittings, and solder [2]. In order to protect public health, it is important to remove lead from drinking water through appropriate treatment methods [3].
There are several laws and regulations that govern lead contamination and removal. The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) is the primary federal law that regulates the quality of drinking water in the United States [4]. The SDWA requires the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to set standards for contaminants in drinking water, including lead [5]. The EPA has set a maximum contaminant level (MCL) for lead of 15 parts per billion (ppb) in drinking water [6]. This MCL is based on the best available science and is designed to protect public health with a margin of safety [7].
In addition to the SDWA, there are also state and local laws and regulations that address lead contamination and removal. These laws and regulations may vary by state and may be more stringent than the federal standards [8]. For example, some states have set lower MCLs for lead or have established programs to address lead contamination in daycares and other public buildings [9].
The effectiveness of these regulations in reducing contamination and protecting public health depends on a number of factors. One key factor is compliance with the regulations. Water utilities are required to test for lead and report the results to the appropriate regulatory agency [10]. If utilities fail to test or fail to properly treat the water to remove lead, then the regulations will not be effective in protecting public health [11].
Another factor that affects the effectiveness of regulations is the quality of the infrastructure that delivers drinking water. Lead pipes and other components of the water distribution system can leach lead into the water, particularly if they are old or in poor condition [12]. In order to reduce contamination and protect public health, it is important to invest in upgrading and replacing aging infrastructure [13].
Overall, government regulations play a crucial role in addressing lead contamination and removal. By setting standards for contaminants in drinking water and requiring utilities to test and treat the water to remove lead, these regulations help to protect public health. However, the effectiveness of these regulations depends on compliance with the regulations and the quality of the infrastructure that delivers drinking water.
[1] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Drinking water contaminants: Lead and copper.
[2] World Health Organization. (2017). Lead in drinking-water.
[3] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2020). Lead.
[4] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Safe Drinking Water Act.
[5] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Safe Drinking Water Act: National primary drinking water regulations.
[6] National Conference of State Legislatures. (2018). State lead laws and regulations.
[7] Environmental Defense Fund. (n.d.). Protecting communities from lead in drinking water.
[8] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Safe Drinking Water Act: Public water systems.
[9] Natural Resources Defense Council. (2020). Lead in drinking water.
[10] American Water Works Association. (n.d.). Lead in drinking water.
[11] American Water Works Association. (n.d.). Lead service line replacement.
[12] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2020). Lead and copper rule.
[13] U.S. Geological Survey. (n.d.). Lead in drinking water. Retrieved from https://www.usgs.gov/
The ethical considerations surrounding lead removal and testing
There are several ethical considerations surrounding lead removal and testing. Lead is a toxic metal that can have serious health consequences, particularly for young children and pregnant women [1]. It is commonly found in drinking water as a result of corrosion of lead pipes, fittings, and solder [2]. In order to protect public health, it is important to remove lead from drinking water through appropriate treatment methods [3].
One ethical consideration surrounding lead removal and testing is the exposure of people to lead-contaminated water. Lead is a known neurotoxin that can cause a range of health problems, including developmental delays, learning disabilities, and behavioral problems in children [4]. It can also cause high blood pressure, kidney damage, and an increased risk of cardiovascular disease in adults [5]. The ethical implications of exposing people to lead-contaminated water are clear: it is unacceptable to allow individuals to be at risk of serious health problems due to the presence of a toxic substance in their drinking water [6].
Another ethical consideration surrounding lead removal and testing is the decision to invest in testing and remediation. The cost of testing lead from drinking water can be significant [7]. There may be a temptation to prioritize other needs or allocate resources elsewhere, particularly in cases where the lead levels in the water are not considered to be at high levels [8]. However, the ethical implications of not investing in testing and remediation are also clear: it is unacceptable to expose people to the risks of lead contamination simply to save money [9].
In conclusion, there are several ethical considerations surrounding lead removal and testing. It is unethical to expose people to lead-contaminated water, and it is also unethical to not invest in testing and remediation in order to save money. Ensuring that clean, safe drinking water is available to all is a moral imperative
[1] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Drinking water contaminants: Lead and copper.
[2] World Health Organization. (2017). Lead in drinking-water.
[3] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2020). Lead.
[4] American Academy of Pediatrics. (2012). Policy statement: The role of the pediatrician in promoting healthy lifestyles for children and adolescents: Counseling to prevent tobacco, alcohol, and drug use. Pediatrics, 130(6), e1482-e1494.
[5] American Water Works Association. (n.d.). Lead in drinking water.
[6] Environmental Defense Fund. (n.d.). Protecting communities from lead in drinking water.
[7] Natural Resources Defense Council. (2020). Lead in drinking water.
[8] Environmental Defense Fund. (n.d.). Lead service line replacement.
[9] American Water Works Association. (n.d.). Lead service line replacement.
The role of public education and awareness in addressing lead contamination and removal
Public education and awareness play a crucial role in addressing lead contamination and removal. Lead is a toxic metal that can have serious health consequences, particularly for young children and pregnant women [1]. It is commonly found in drinking water as a result of corrosion of leadpipes, fittings, and solder [2]. In order to protect public health, it is important to remove lead from drinking water through appropriate treatment methods [3].
Public education and awareness campaigns can help to reduce lead contamination and promote safe drinking water in several ways. One way is by providing information about the health impacts of lead and the sources of contamination [4]. This can include information about the symptoms of lead poisoning and the populations most at risk, as well as the sources of lead contamination in drinking water [5].
Another way that public education and awareness campaigns can contribute to addressing lead contamination is by promoting actions that individuals can take to reduce their exposure to lead. This can include information about the use of water filters and other treatment methods, as well as steps that can be taken to reduce lead exposure in the home (e.g. flushing pipes before using water, using cold water for cooking and drinking) [6].
Public education and awareness campaigns can also raise awareness about the importance of regular testing for lead in drinking water [7]. This can include information about the frequency of testing required by law, as well as the availability of testing kits and resources for obtaining test results [8].
Overall, the role of public education and awareness in addressing lead contamination and removal is crucial. By providing information about the health impacts of lead and the sources of contamination, promoting actions that individuals can take to reduce their exposure, and raising awareness about the importance of regular testing, public education and awareness campaigns can help to protect public health and ensure that clean, safe drinking water is available to all.
[1] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Drinking water contaminants: Lead and copper.
[2] World Health Organization. (2017). Lead in drinking-water.
[3] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2020). Lead.
[4] American Water Works Association. (n.d.). Lead in drinking water.
[5] Environmental Defense Fund. (n.d.). Protecting communities from lead in drinking water.
[6] Natural Resources Defense Council. (2020). Lead in drinking water.
[7] Environmental Defense Fund. (n.d.). Lead service line replacement.
[8] American Water Works Association. (n.d.). Lead service line replacement.
The role of community organizing and advocacy in addressing lead contamination and removal
Community organizing and advocacy play a crucial role in addressing lead contamination and removal. Lead is a toxic metal that can have serious health consequences, particularly for young children and pregnant women [1]. It is commonly found in drinking water as a result of corrosion of lead pipes, fittings, and solder [2]. In order to protect public health, it is important to remove lead from drinking water through appropriate treatment methods [3].
Community organizations and advocacy groups can raise awareness about lead contamination and advocate for change in several ways. One way is through education and outreach. By providing information about the health impacts of lead and the sources of contamination, community groups can help to increase understanding of the issue and the need for action [4]. They can also work to ensure that information about lead levels in drinking water is easily accessible and understood by the public [5].
Another way that community organizations and advocacy groups can contribute to addressing lead contamination is by advocating for policies and regulations that address the issue. This can include lobbying for stricter standards for lead in drinking water, supporting funding for lead removal programs, and advocating for the replacement of lead pipes [6].
Community organizing and advocacy can also involve working with local government and water utilities to identify and prioritize areas for lead removal [7]. This can include identifying areas with high levels of lead contamination, advocating for the replacement of lead pipes, and working with water utilities to implement treatment methods that are effective at removing lead [8].
In addition to these efforts, community organizations and advocacy groups can also work to support those impacted by lead contamination. This can include providing resources and support for individuals and families affected by lead poisoning, and advocating for policies that provide financial assistance for lead removal and remediation [9].
Overall, the role of community organizing and advocacy in addressing lead contamination and removal is crucial. By raising awareness, advocating for change, and supporting those impacted by lead contamination, community organizations and advocacy groups can help to protect public health and ensure that clean, safe drinking water is available to all.
[1] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Drinking water contaminants: Lead and copper.
[2] World Health Organization. (2017). Lead in drinking-water.
[3] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2020). Lead.
[4] American Water Works Association. (n.d.). Lead in drinking water.
[5] Environmental Defense Fund. (n.d.). Protecting communities from lead in drinking water.
[6] Natural Resources Defense Council. (2020). Lead in drinking water.
[7] Environmental Defense Fund. (n.d.). Lead service line replacement.
[8] American Water Works Association. (n.d.). Lead service line replacement.
[9] American Water Works Association. (n.d.). Lead service line replacement. Retrieved from https://www.awwa.org/
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