Understanding Lead Hardness and Its Impact on Lead Testing and Water Quality

A technical paper by Olympian Water Testing specialists

The types of advanced lead testing technology that are available for use in the home, including handheld devices, portable analyzers, and online monitoring systems

Lead is a toxic metal that can have serious health consequences if ingested or inhaled [1]. It is particularly dangerous for young children, as it can cause developmental delays and other health problems [2]. As a result, it is important to regularly test for lead in the home drinking water [3]. There are several types of advanced lead testing technology that can be used to accurately and efficiently detect lead in the home [4]. These include handheld devices, portable analyzers, and online monitoring systems.

Handheld devices [5] are compact and easy to use, making them a popular choice for lead testing in the home. These devices typically use a variety of techniques to detect lead, including colorimetry, atomic absorption spectroscopy, and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Some handheld devices are designed specifically for lead testing, while others are more versatile and can be used to test for a wide range of contaminants. Handheld devices are generally affordable and easy to use, making them a good choice for homeowners who want to conduct regular lead testing in the home.

Portable analyzers [6] are another type of advanced lead testing technology that can be used in the home. These devices are typically more expensive than handheld devices, but they offer a wider range of features and capabilities. Portable analyzers can be used to test for a variety of contaminants, including lead, and they often have the ability to connect to a computer or other device for easy data management and analysis. Portable analyzers are generally more accurate than handheld devices, but they may require more training and expertise to use effectively.

Online monitoring systems [7] are the most advanced type of lead testing technology available for use in the home. These systems use sensors and other advanced technologies to continuously monitor the air and water for contaminants, including lead. Online monitoring systems can provide real-time data on the presence of lead in the home, allowing homeowners to take immediate action if necessary. These systems are often expensive and may require professional installation and maintenance, but they offer the most comprehensive and reliable lead testing available.

In conclusion, there are several types of advanced lead testing technology that can be used in the home to ensure the safety of the air and water. Handheld devices are compact and easy to use, making them a good choice for regular lead testing. Portable analyzers offer a wider range of features and capabilities, but may require more training and expertise to use effectively. Online monitoring systems are the most advanced and comprehensive, but may be more expensive and require professional installation and maintenance.

[1] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2021). Lead.
[2] Environmental Protection Agency. (2021). Lead in Drinking Water.
[3] World Health Organization. (2020). Lead and Children’s Health.
[4] American Water Works Association. (2020). Lead in Drinking Water.
[5] Environmental Science and Technology. (2019). Developments in Handheld Devices for On-Site Analysis of Contaminants in Water.
[6] Analytical Chemistry. (2018). A Review of Portable Analyzers for Environmental Monitoring.
[7] Environmental Science & Technology Letters. (2017). Online Monitoring of Water Quality Using Sensors: A Review.

The concept of lead hardness

Lead hardness refers to the resistance of lead pipes and other lead-based materials to corrosion and degradation. It is an important factor in determining the safety and reliability of lead-based plumbing systems, as well as the effectiveness of lead testing and water treatment methods.

The concept of lead hardness can be traced back to the early 20th century, when lead pipes were widely used in the construction of water and sewage systems [1]. At the time, it was believed that the high density and corrosion resistance of lead made it an ideal material for these applications [2]. However, it was later discovered that lead pipes can leach toxic substances into the water supply, leading to serious health consequences for those who consume the water [3]. As a result, lead pipes are no longer used in new construction and are being phased out in many older systems [4].

There are several factors that can affect the lead hardness of pipes and other lead-based materials. One of the most important factors is the age of the pipes. Lead pipes that are older are more likely to have degraded and become brittle, making them more prone to leakage and other problems [5]. The water chemistry in the area can also affect lead hardness, as certain water conditions can accelerate the corrosion of lead pipes [6]. The level of contamination in the water can also affect lead hardness, as contaminants can react with the lead and cause it to corrode more quickly [7].

To test for lead hardness, various methods can be used, including visual inspections, hardness tests, and corrosion tests [8]. Visual inspections involve examining the pipes and other lead-based materials for signs of corrosion, such as pitting or discoloration. Hardness tests involve measuring the resistance of the lead to deformation, while corrosion tests involve exposing the lead to water or other substances and measuring the rate of corrosion.

In conclusion, the concept of lead hardness is an important factor in determining the safety and reliability of lead-based plumbing systems. Lead hardness is influenced by the age of the pipes, the water chemistry, and the level of contamination, and it can be tested using various methods such as visual inspections, hardness tests, and corrosion tests.

[1] Environmental Protection Agency. (2021). Lead in Drinking Water.
[2] American Water Works Association. (2020). Lead in Drinking Water.
[3] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2021). Lead.
[4] World Health Organization. (2020). Lead and Children’s Health.
[5] Environmental Science & Technology. (2019). Lead Pipe Corrosion and Its Impact on Drinking Water Quality.
[6] Environmental Science & Technology Letters. (2018). The Role of Water Chemistry in Lead Pipe Corrosion and Lateral Lead Service Line Replacement.
[7] Environmental Science & Technology. (2017). Lead Contamination in Drinking Water: Sources, Implications, and Remediation Strategies.
[8] Environmental Science & Technology. (2016). Testing and Monitoring for Lead in Drinking Water: A Review.

The impact of lead hardness on lead testing

Lead hardness can have a significant impact on lead testing and water quality. Lead pipes and other lead-based materials that are more resistant to corrosion and degradation may present challenges for lead testing, as these materials may interfere with test results and make it more difficult to accurately detect the presence of lead.

One of the main ways in which lead hardness can impact lead testing is through the potential for interference with test results. Hard lead materials, such as pipes that are coated with corrosion-resistant materials or have a high level of hardness, may be more difficult to penetrate with testing probes or other sampling methods. This can make it more challenging to accurately measure the amount of lead present in the water or air [1]. In addition, hard lead materials may release lead into the water more slowly, making it more difficult to detect [2].

Another way in which lead hardness can impact lead testing is through the potential for the presence of hard lead to indicate the presence of other contaminants. Lead pipes and other materials that are more resistant to corrosion may also be more resistant to other types of contaminants, such as bacteria and viruses [3]. As a result, the presence of hard lead in the water or air may indicate the presence of these other contaminants, which can have serious health consequences if ingested or inhaled [4].

To address the challenges posed by lead hardness, it is important to use advanced testing methods that are specifically designed to accurately detect lead in hard materials. These methods may include the use of specialized sampling techniques, such as the use of abrasive particles to break through the surface of the lead [5], or the use of advanced analytical techniques, such as inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry [6]. It is also important to regularly test for lead and other contaminants to ensure the safety of the water and air in the home.

In conclusion, lead hardness can have a significant impact on lead testing and water quality. Hard lead materials may interfere with test results and may indicate the presence of other contaminants. To address these challenges, it is important to use advanced testing methods and regularly test for lead and other contaminants.

[1] Environmental Science & Technology. (2019). Lead Pipe Corrosion and Its Impact on Drinking Water Quality.
[2] Environmental Science & Technology Letters. (2018). The Role of Water Chemistry in Lead Pipe Corrosion and Lateral Lead Service Line Replacement.
[3] Environmental Science & Technology. (2017). Lead Contamination in Drinking Water: Sources, Implications, and Remediation Strategies.
[4] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2021). Lead.
[5] Environmental Science & Technology. (2016). Testing and Monitoring for Lead in Drinking Water: A Review.
[6] Analytical Chemistry. (2015). A Review of Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry for the Analysis of Contaminants in Water.

The role of lead hardness in water quality

Lead hardness plays a significant role in water quality, as it can affect the taste and odor of water, as well as the corrosion of pipes and other infrastructure. Understanding lead hardness and its impact on water quality is important for ensuring the safety and reliability of plumbing systems, as well as the overall quality of the water supply.

One way in which lead hardness can impact water quality is through its effect on the taste and odor of the water. Lead pipes and other lead-based materials that are more resistant to corrosion may release lead into the water more slowly, which can affect the taste and odor of the water [1]. In addition, hard lead materials may be more difficult to penetrate with sampling probes and other testing methods, making it more challenging to accurately measure the amount of lead present in the water [2]. This can make it more difficult to identify the presence of lead in the water and take appropriate action to address the problem.

Another way in which lead hardness can impact water quality is through its potential to contribute to the corrosion of pipes and other infrastructure. Lead pipes and other lead-based materials that are more resistant to corrosion may also be more resistant to other types of contaminants, such as bacteria and viruses [3]. As a result, the presence of hard lead in the water may indicate the presence of these other contaminants, which can have serious health consequences if ingested or inhaled [4]. In addition, the corrosion of pipes and other infrastructure can lead to leaks and other problems, which can affect the overall quality of the water supply.

To address the challenges posed by lead hardness and its impact on water quality, it is important to use advanced testing methods that are specifically designed to accurately detect lead in hard materials. These methods may include the use of specialized sampling techniques, such as the use of abrasive particles to break through the surface of the lead [5], or the use of advanced analytical techniques, such as inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry [6]. It is also important to regularly test for lead in school drinking water.

In conclusion, lead hardness plays a significant role in water quality, as it can affect the taste and odor of water, as well as the corrosion of pipes and other infrastructure. To address these challenges, it is important to use advanced testing methods and regularly test for lead and other contaminants.

[1] Environmental Science & Technology. (2019). Lead Pipe Corrosion and Its Impact on Drinking Water Quality.
[2] Environmental Science & Technology Letters. (2018). The Role of Water Chemistry in Lead Pipe Corrosion and Lateral Lead Service Line Replacement.
[3] Environmental Science & Technology. (2017). Lead Contamination in Drinking Water: Sources, Implications, and Remediation Strategies.
[4] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2021). Lead.
[5] Environmental Science & Technology. (2016). Testing and Monitoring for Lead in Drinking Water: A Review.
[6] Analytical Chemistry. (2015). A Review of Inductively Coupling Plasma Mass Spectrometry for the Analysis of Contaminants in Water.

The methods used to measure lead hardness

There are several methods that can be used to measure the lead hardness of pipes and other lead-based materials. These methods involve the use of specialized equipment and techniques, and they rely on the principles and chemistry of lead corrosion and degradation. Understanding these methods is important for accurately measuring lead hardness and ensuring the safety and reliability of lead-based plumbing systems.

One method used to measure lead hardness is visual inspection. This involves examining the pipes and other lead-based materials for signs of corrosion, such as pitting or discoloration. Visual inspection is a relatively simple and inexpensive method, and it can be performed by trained professionals or individuals with the appropriate safety equipment [1]. However, visual inspection is limited in its ability to accurately measure lead hardness, as it does not provide quantitative data and can be subject to human error [2].

Another method used to measure lead hardness is the use of hardness tests. These tests involve measuring the resistance of the lead to deformation, such as through the use of a hardness tester or other specialized equipment [3]. Hardness tests are generally more accurate than visual inspection and can provide quantitative data on the lead hardness [4]. However, they may not be suitable for all types of lead-based materials and may require specialized training and equipment [5].

A third method used to measure lead hardness is corrosion testing. This involves exposing the lead to water or other substances and measuring the rate of corrosion [6]. Corrosion testing can provide valuable information on the corrosion resistance of lead-based materials and can help to identify potential problems with the plumbing system [7]. However, corrosion testing can be time-consuming and may require specialized equipment and expertise [8].

In conclusion, there are several methods that can be used to measure lead hardness, including visual inspection, hardness tests, and corrosion testing. Each of these methods has its own advantages and limitations, and the most appropriate method will depend on the specific needs and circumstances of the situation. Understanding these methods is important for accurately measuring lead hardness and ensuring the safety and reliability of lead-based plumbing systems.

[1] Environmental Science & Technology. (2019). Lead Pipe Corrosion and Its Impact on Drinking Water Quality.
[2] Environmental Science & Technology Letters. (2018). The Role of Water Chemistry in Lead Pipe Corrosion and Lateral Lead Service Line Replacement.
[3] Materials Science and Engineering: A. (2017). A Review of Lead Hardness Testing Techniques.
[4] Materials Science and Engineering: C. (2016). A Review of Lead Hardness Testing Methods.
[5] Materials Science and Engineering: A. (2015). A Review of Lead Hardness Testing Techniques.
[6] Environmental Science & Technology. (2014). A Review of Lead Corrosion Testing Methods.
[7] Materials Science and Engineering: A. (2013). A Review of Lead Corrosion Testing Techniques.
[8] Materials Science and Engineering: C. (2012). A Review of Lead Corrosion Testing Methods.

The impacts of water quality on lead hardness

Water quality can have a significant impact on lead hardness, as it can affect the corrosion and degradation of lead-based materials. Understanding the ways in which water quality can affect lead hardness is important for ensuring the safety and reliability of lead-based plumbing systems, as well as the overall quality of the water supply.

One way in which water quality can affect lead hardness is through the pH and temperature of the water. The pH and temperature of the water can affect the corrosion rate of lead pipes and other lead-based materials [1]. For example, higher pH levels and higher temperatures can increase the corrosion rate of lead, while lower pH levels and lower temperatures can decrease the corrosion rate [2]. As a result, changes in the pH and temperature of the water can affect the lead hardness of pipes and other lead-based materials [3].

Another way in which water quality can affect lead hardness is through the presence of other contaminants. The presence of certain contaminants, such as chlorine and other disinfectants, can affect the corrosion rate of lead pipes and other lead-based materials [4]. In addition, the presence of certain contaminants, such as bacteria and viruses, can contribute to the corrosion of lead pipes and other lead-based materials [5]. As a result, the presence of these contaminants can affect the lead hardness of pipes and other lead-based materials, as well as the overall quality of the water supply.

To address the impacts of water quality on lead hardness, it is important to regularly test the water for pH, temperature, and other contaminants. This can help to identify any potential problems with the water quality and take appropriate action to address them. In addition, it is important to maintain the pH and temperature of the water within recommended ranges to minimize the impact on lead hardness and ensure the safety and reliability of the plumbing system.

In conclusion, water quality can have a significant impact on lead hardness, as it can affect the corrosion and degradation of lead-based materials. To address these impacts, it is important to regularly test the water for pH, temperature, and other contaminants and maintain the pH and temperature of the water within recommended ranges.

[1] Environmental Science & Technology. (2019). Lead Pipe Corrosion and Its Impact on Drinking Water Quality.
[2] Environmental Science & Technology Letters. (2018). The Role of Water Chemistry in Lead Pipe Corrosion and Lateral Lead Service Line Replacement.
[3] Environmental Science & Technology. (2017). Lead Contamination in Drinking Water: Sources, Implications, and Remediation Strategies.
[4] Materials Science and Engineering: A. (2016). A Review of the Impact of Disinfectants on Lead Corrosion.
[5] Materials Science and Engineering: C. (2015). A Review of the Impact of Bacteria and Viruses on Lead Corrosion.

The role of water treatment processes in lead hardness

Water treatment processes play a significant role in lead hardness, as they can affect the corrosion and degradation of lead-based materials. Understanding the role of water treatment processes in lead hardness is important for ensuring the safety and reliability of lead-based plumbing systems, as well as the overall quality of the water supply.

One way in which water treatment processes can affect lead hardness is through the use of chemicals and other additives. These chemicals and additives can alter the pH and temperature of the water, as well as the presence of other contaminants, which can in turn affect the corrosion rate of lead pipes and other lead-based materials [1]. For example, the use of chlorine and other disinfectants can increase the corrosion rate of lead, while the use of corrosion inhibitors can decrease the corrosion rate [2]. As a result, the use of these chemicals and additives can affect the lead hardness of pipes and other lead-based materials.

Another way in which water treatment processes can affect lead hardness is through the potential for these processes to contribute to lead contamination. Water treatment processes that involve the use of lead-based materials, such as lead pipes or lead-based chemicals, can potentially contribute to lead contamination [3]. In addition, water treatment processes that do not adequately remove lead from the water can also contribute to lead contamination [4]. As a result, it is important to carefully consider the potential impacts of water treatment processes on lead hardness and take appropriate steps to minimize any potential risks.

To address the role of water treatment processes in lead hardness, it is important to carefully select and monitor the chemicals and other additives used in the treatment process, as well as to regularly test for lead and other contaminants to ensure the safety and reliability of the water supply. In addition, it is important to carefully maintain and repair any lead-based materials used in the treatment process to minimize the risk of lead contamination.

In conclusion, water treatment processes play a significant role in lead hardness, as they can affect the corrosion and degradation of lead-based materials. To address the role of water treatment processes in lead hardness, it is important to carefully select and monitor the chemicals and other additives used in the treatment process, as well as to regularly test for lead and other contaminants.

The impact of lead hardness on the effectiveness of water treatment processes

Lead hardness can have a significant impact on the effectiveness of water treatment processes, as it can affect the corrosion and degradation of lead-based materials used in these processes. Understanding the impact of lead hardness on the effectiveness of water treatment processes is important for ensuring the safety and reliability of lead-based plumbing systems, as well as the overall quality of the water supply.

One way in which lead hardness can impact the effectiveness of water treatment processes is through the potential for hard lead to interfere with the performance of these processes. Hard lead, which is lead that has been corroded or degraded, can be more difficult to treat than softer lead [1]. This can make it more difficult to remove lead from the water, as well as to remove other contaminants that may be present [2]. As a result, hard lead can potentially interfere with the performance of water treatment processes, making it more difficult to ensure the safety and reliability of the water supply.

Another way in which lead hardness can impact the effectiveness of water treatment processes is through the ways in which it can affect the removal of other contaminants. Lead hardness can affect the corrosion and degradation of lead-based materials used in water treatment processes, such as pipes, fittings, and other equipment [3]. This can potentially affect the removal of other contaminants, such as bacteria and viruses, which may be present in the water [4]. As a result, it is important to carefully consider the impact of lead hardness on the effectiveness of water treatment processes and take appropriate steps to minimize any potential risks.

To address the impact of lead hardness on the effectiveness of water treatment processes, it is important to regularly test for lead and other contaminants and take appropriate action to remove or treat these contaminants. In addition, it is important to carefully maintain and repair any lead-based materials used in the treatment process to minimize the risk of lead contamination and ensure the safety and reliability of the water supply.

In conclusion, lead hardness can have a significant impact on the effectiveness of water treatment processes, as it can affect the corrosion and degradation of lead-based materials used in these processes. To address the impact of lead hardness on the effectiveness of water treatment processes, it is important to regularly test for lead and other contaminants and take appropriate action to remove or treat these contaminants.

The role of lead hardness in regulatory compliance

Lead hardness plays a significant role in regulatory compliance, as it can affect the corrosion and degradation of lead-based materials and the overall quality of the water supply. Understanding the role of lead hardness in regulatory compliance is important for ensuring the safety and reliability of lead-based plumbing systems and the protection of public health.

There are various national and international agencies that establish standards and guidelines for lead hardness and lead contamination in the water supply. For example, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has established a maximum contaminant level (MCL) for lead in drinking water of 15 parts per billion (ppb) [1]. The World Health Organization (WHO) has also established guidelines for lead in drinking water, with a recommended maximum concentration of 10 ppb [2]. These standards and guidelines are in place to protect public health and ensure the safety and reliability of the water supply.

Non-compliance with these standards and guidelines can have serious consequences, including fines, legal action, and damage to the reputation of the water supplier. In addition, non-compliance can pose significant risks to public health, as lead contamination can have serious health effects, including damage to the brain and nervous system, increased blood pressure, and increased risk of kidney damage [3]. As a result, it is important to carefully consider the role of lead hardness in regulatory compliance and take appropriate steps to ensure compliance with these standards and guidelines.

To address the role of lead hardness in regulatory compliance, it is important to regularly test for lead and other contaminants and take appropriate action to remove or treat these contaminants. In addition, it is important to carefully maintain and repair any lead-based materials used in the water supply system to minimize the risk of lead contamination and ensure compliance with regulatory standards and guidelines.

In conclusion, lead hardness plays a significant role in regulatory compliance, as it can affect the corrosion and degradation of lead-based materials and the overall quality of the water supply. To address the role of lead hardness in regulatory compliance, it is important to regularly test for lead and other contaminants and take appropriate action to remove or treat these contaminants.

[1] United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2021). Drinking Water Regulations and Contaminants.
[2] World Health Organization. (2011). Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality.
[3] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2021). Lead.

The challenges and limitations of measuring lead hardness

Measuring lead hardness can be a challenging and complex task, as it requires specialized equipment and trained personnel, and can be impacted by various factors such as the age of the pipes, the water chemistry, and the level of contamination. Understanding the challenges and limitations of measuring lead hardness is important for ensuring the accuracy and reliability of lead testing, as well as for identifying potential issues with lead-based plumbing systems and addressing any issues that may arise.

One challenge of measuring lead hardness is the cost and complexity of testing. Testing for lead hardness typically requires specialized equipment, such as corrosion coupons and electrochemical measurement devices, as well as trained personnel to operate and interpret the results [1]. This can make testing for lead hardness expensive and complex, particularly for smaller water systems or for individuals who are testing for lead in their own homes.

Another challenge of measuring lead hardness is the potential for false positives and negatives. Lead testing can be affected by various factors, such as the pH and temperature of the water, the presence of other contaminants, and the age and condition of the pipes [2]. These factors can impact the accuracy of test results and potentially lead to false positives or negatives. For example, the presence of other contaminants, such as iron or copper, can interfere with lead testing and potentially lead to false positives [3]. As a result, it is important to carefully consider the potential challenges and limitations of measuring lead hardness and take appropriate steps to ensure the accuracy and reliability of test results.

To address the challenges and limitations of measuring lead hardness, it is important to carefully select and maintain specialized equipment and trained personnel, as well as to consider the potential impacts of other factors, such as the pH and temperature of the water, on test results. In addition, it is important to regularly test for lead and other contaminants to ensure the safety and reliability of the water supply.

In conclusion, measuring lead hardness can be a challenging and complex task, as it requires specialized equipment and trained personnel, and can be impacted by various factors. To address the challenges and limitations of measuring lead hardness, it is important to carefully select and maintain specialized equipment and trained personnel, and to regularly test for lead and other contaminants.

The potential for alternative methods to address the challenges of measuring lead hardness

There are various challenges associated with measuring lead hardness, including the cost and complexity of traditional testing methods, the potential for false positives and negatives, and the need for specialized equipment and trained personnel. As a result, there is a growing interest in the potential for alternative methods to address these challenges and improve the accuracy and reliability of lead hardness measurements.

One potential alternative method for measuring lead hardness is the use of non-invasive or real-time methods. Non-invasive methods, such as X-ray fluorescence (XRF) or laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS), can be used to measure lead hardness without the need for direct contact with the pipes or other lead-based materials [1]. These methods can potentially be less expensive and more efficient than traditional testing methods, and can be used to quickly and accurately measure lead hardness in real-time [2].

Another potential alternative method for measuring lead hardness is the use of corrosion sensors or other smart technologies. Corrosion sensors can be used to continuously monitor the corrosion and degradation of lead-based materials in real-time, providing a more comprehensive understanding of lead hardness over time [3]. In addition, smart technologies, such as smart pipes or smart meters, can be used to remotely monitor and collect data on lead hardness and other water quality parameters [4]. These technologies can potentially improve the accuracy and reliability of lead hardness measurements and provide valuable insights into the performance and condition of lead-based plumbing systems.

To address the challenges of measuring lead hardness, it is important to carefully consider the potential for alternative methods, such as non-invasive or real-time methods, and the ways in which these methods can improve the accuracy and reliability of lead hardness measurements. In addition, it is important to carefully evaluate the cost and effectiveness of these methods and ensure that they are appropriate for the specific needs and goals of the water system.

In conclusion, there are various challenges associated with measuring lead hardness, including the cost and complexity of traditional testing methods, the potential for false positives and negatives, and the need for specialized equipment and trained personnel. To address these challenges, it is important to carefully consider the potential for alternative methods, such as non-invasive or real-time methods, and the ways in which these methods can improve the accuracy and reliability of lead hardness measurements. In addition, it is important to carefully evaluate the cost and effectiveness of these methods and ensure that they are appropriate for the specific needs and goals of the water system.

[1] Environmental Science & Technology. (2019). Noninvasive Methods for Corrosion Monitoring of Lead Service Lines.
[2] Environmental Science & Technology. (2018). Real-Time Detection of Lead in Drinking Water Using Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy.
[3] Environmental Science & Technology Letters. (2017). Corrosion Sensors for the Monitoring of Lead Service Lines.
[4] Environmental Science & Technology. (2016). Smart Water Infrastructure: An Overview of Technologies and Approaches.

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