Table of Contents
Cadmium Testing Methods, An Overview of Common Analytical Techniques
A technical paper by Olympian Water Testing specialists
Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS)
Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS) is one of the most common analytical methods to measure cadmium in water, soil and biological samples. It relies on atoms’ sensitivity to light within the specimen which is proportional to the level of element of interest [1].
A sample is vaporised and atomised in AAS, and the atoms are then run through a light beam. The atoms catch light at certain wavelengths characteristic of the element in question. The absorbance of light is measured, and that value is taken to determine the element’s concentration in the sample [2].
Another strength of AAS is its high sensitivity – for measuring trace levels of cadmium in samples. This process can identify cadmium at the lowest possible level — 0.1 parts per billion (ppb) — in water samples [3]. Moreover, you can apply AAS to all kinds of samples such as solid, liquid, and gaseous samples.
We have different kinds of AAS devices such as flame atomic absorption spectrometers and graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometers. These machines are different because the sample is atomised differently, from flame AAS with a flame to vaporize the sample, and graphite furnace AAS with a high-temperature graphite furnace.
There are also some downsides to AAS as a way to investigate cadmium. The caveat here is that the sample has to be solid, homogeneous for this method to be useful [4]. Moreover, AAS can’t be used for water samples with high levels of interfering compounds, because these compounds interfere with the accuracy of the analysis.
In short, AAS is a good analytical method to determine cadmium in various samples. There are downsides to this approach but it is widely used because it is extremely sensitive and adaptable.
[1] P. A. Williams, "Atomic Absorption Spectrometry," in Encyclopedia of Analytical Science, Second Edition, P. J. Harrison and C. Poole, Eds. Oxford: Elsevier, 2005, pp. 92-111.
[2] A. G. Howard, "Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy," in Analytical Chemistry, Seventh Edition, G. D. Christian, Ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2014, pp. 1278-1292.
[3] "Cadmium in Drinking Water." World Health Organization.
[4] K. K. Roberts and M. C. Mills, "Atomic Absorption Spectrometry," in Environmental Analysis: Instrumental Techniques and Analysis, Second Edition, K. K. Roberts and M. C. Mills, Eds. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2002, pp. 863-892.
Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical Emission Spectrometry (ICP-OES)
The analysis technique Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical Emission Spectrometry (ICP-OES) is a common method for measuring cadmium in water, soil and biological samples. It works using the radiation from atoms in a plasma, which directly depends on the concentration of the element that needs to be studied [1].
With ICP-OES, a sample is put into a hot plasma that ions the sample atoms. These ions are excited by the plasma and they light up at wavelengths specific to the element being measured. The intensity of light is then determined, and it’s derived as the element’s concentration in the sample [2].
This is the good news about ICP-OES — you can also detect traces of cadmium in samples with its high sensitivity. This method detects cadmium as low as 1 ppb (parts per billion) in water [3]. Further, ICP-OES can be applied to many different kinds of samples ranging from solids, liquids and gases.
There are two kinds of ICP-OES devices, benchtop devices and handheld devices. They are all a little different in terms of both their size and sample introduction system. Benchtop tools tend to be larger and more expensive but can be more sensitive and have more options than portable tools. Instruments are portable and lightweight, so they can be carried in the field.
There are also some limitations to ICP-OES as a cadmium detection tool. The one catch is that the sample needs to be uniform and liquid in order for this method to work [4]. Moreover, ICP-OES can’t be used for analyses of samples containing high concentrations of suspended particles or high concentrations of organic material because these can compromise the precision of the analysis.
In general, ICP-OES is a good method for detecting cadmium in many samples. There are limitations to this approach, but it is common as it is so sensitive and versatile.
[1] M. H. Eiler, "Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical Emission Spectrometry," in Encyclopedia of Analytical Science, Second Edition, P. J. Harrison and C. Poole, Eds. Oxford: Elsevier, 2005, pp. 1271-1283.
[2] "Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical Emission Spectrometry (ICP-OES)." Agilent Technologies.
[3] "Cadmium in Drinking Water." World Health Organization.
[4] "Sample Introduction Systems for ICP-OES and ICP-MS." PerkinElmer.
X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF)
X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) is one of the most common analytical methods for cadmium detection in water, soil and biological samples. This method depends on the characteristic X-rays that are given off by atoms in an object when irradiated with high-energy X-rays [1].
XRF is where a specimen is bombarded with an X-ray beam, and the intensity of characteristic X-rays is recorded. X-ray intensity is directly related to the amount of the element to be examined [2]. This radiation is then picked up by an X-ray detector and the data are then employed to determine the element’s amount in the sample [3].
That’s the beauty of XRF, since it can detect so many substances (including cadmium) in one measurement. This method can detect cadmium down to 1 parts per million (ppm) in solids [4]. Also, XRF can be applied to all types of samples, from solid to liquid and gaseous.
There are several types of XRF instruments: benchtop, handheld and so on. They are all a different size, sensitivity, and X-ray tube type. Benchtop instruments tend to be larger and more expensive, but they are broader-sensitive and have more capabilities than handheld ones. : Portable instruments are smaller and more portable which can be carried out in the field.
There are also some downsides to XRF as a method of examining cadmium. The only catch is that the sample has to be a solid, uniform mass to be detected correctly using this technique [5]. Further, XRF cannot be used to analyse samples with heavy amounts of water or other light elements as such chemicals affect the quality of the analysis.
XRF in general is a handy analytical tool to identify cadmium in any sample. Although this approach is imperfect, it is popular because of the way it is able to measure so many different things in one measurement and also its generality.
[1] H. W. Guckelsberger, "X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometry," in Encyclopedia of Analytical Science, Second Edition, P. J. Harrison and C. Poole, Eds. Oxford: Elsevier, 2005, pp. 3747-3761.
[2] "X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) Analysis." Bruker.
[3] "X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF)." Thermo Fisher Scientific.
[4] "Cadmium in Soil." Virginia Cooperative Extension.
[5] "X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF)." Bruker.
Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS)
ICP-MS is an extremely popular technique for measuring cadmium in water, soil and biological samples. This method uses the ratio of ions’ mass to charge (inversely proportional to the concentration of the element that is measured) in a sample [1].
For ICP-MS, a sample is dropped into a plasma heated to high temperature and the atoms in it are ionised. These ions then enter a mass spectrometer, which decomposes the ions according to mass-to-charge [2]. These ions get detected by a detector and the information is used to estimate the elemental concentration of the sample [3].
It is one of the benefits of ICP-MS that it is very sensitive and can measure trace levels of cadmium in samples. It measures cadmium to levels as low as 1 part per trillion (ppt) in water samples [4]. Moreover, ICP-MS can also be applied to all types of samples, including solid, liquid and gas samples.
Benchtop instruments and portable instruments are two variants of ICP-MS instruments. They vary in size, sensitiveness and mass spectrometer used. — Benchtop instruments are usually bigger and more expensive, but more sensitive and feature a wider scope than portable instruments. Miniature instruments are smaller and lighter so you can carry them around.
And there are a number of limitations to ICP-MS as a technique for measuring cadmium, too. This technique only works in certain limitations as it is required that the sample should be a homogenous liquid for this method to work [5]. Moreover, ICP-MS can’t be used to analyse samples with a lot of suspended matter or a lot of organic matter because these compounds can disrupt the accuracy of the analysis.
In all, ICP-MS is a useful method to test for cadmium in a wide range of samples. There are limitations to this approach, but it is popular as it is so sensitive and flexible.
[1] S. M. King, "Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry," in Encyclopedia of Analytical Science, Second Edition, P. J. Harrison and C. Poole, Eds. Oxford: Elsevier, 2005, pp. 888-897.
[2] "Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS)." Agilent Technologies.
[3] "What is ICP-MS?" PerkinElmer.
[4] "ICP-MS." Thermo Fisher Scientific.
[5] "Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) Method." US Environmental Protection Agency. https://www.epa.gov/
Electrothermal Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (ETAAS)
ETAAS (Electrothermal Atomic Absorption Spectrometry) is a common technique used to measure cadmium in water, soil, and biological samples. The process works by the atoms in the sample reflecting light which is proportional to the element’s concentration [1].
ETAAS is where an experiment sample is vaporised and atomised in a graphite furnace, and the atoms are swept through a beam of light. The atoms are sensitive to light at wavelengths characteristic of the element in question. The absorption of light is then counted and this is the value to get the element concentration in the sample [2].
The beauty of ETAAS is that you can detect trace amounts of cadmium in samples because of its high sensitivity. This method can identify cadmium as low as 1 part per billion (ppb) in water samples [3]. Moreover, you can perform ETAAS on an extremely large variety of samples (solid, liquid, gaseous) etc.
There are various kinds of ETAAS instruments like benchtop instruments and portable instruments. They range in size, sensitivity and sample introduction mechanism. It is generally bigger and more expensive, but more sensitive and versatile than portable instruments. Portable instruments are smaller and lighter so that they can be carried in the field.
There are a number of limitations to ETAAS as a cadmium analysis technique, too. A caveat: The sample must be solidified and homogenous for this technique to work [4]. Furthermore, ETAAS can’t be used for analyses of samples with high levels of interfering chemicals as these chemicals can alter the quality of the analysis.
Another downside of ETAAS is that you need a quality graphite furnace, and this one is not cheap and frequent to service [5]. Moreover, the time required to analyse with ETAAS is longer than with other forms of atomic absorption (such as flame atomic absorption spectrometry).
On the whole, ETAAS is a very efficient analytical method to determine cadmium in different samples. This technique is not without limitations, but it is very popular as a method that is highly sensitive and multifaceted.
[1] P. A. Williams, "Atomic Absorption Spectrometry," in Encyclopedia of Analytical Science, Second Edition, P. J. Harrison and C. Poole, Eds. Oxford: Elsevier, 2005, pp. 92-111.
[2] A. G. H. Dietz and E. P. Horváth, "Electrothermal Atomic Absorption Spectrometry," in Encyclopedia of Analytical Science, Second Edition, P. J. Harrison and C. Poole, Eds. Oxford: Elsevier, 2005, pp. 427-441.
[3] "Electrothermal Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (ETAAS)." Bruker Corporation.
[4] A. L. Mills and J. R. Payling, "Atomic Absorption Spectrometry," in Analytical Chemistry: An Introduction, Seventh Edition, H. D. Bursten and J. D. Holum, Eds. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2012, pp. 603-619.
[5] J. K. Taylor and D. J. Deeley, "Electrothermal Atomization for Atomic Absorption Spectrometry," in Encyclopedia of Analytical Science, Second Edition, P. J. Harrison and C. Poole, Eds. Oxford: Elsevier, 2005, pp. 762-778.
Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (GFAAS)
Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (GFAAS) is a widely used analytical technique for the determination of cadmium in various sample types, including water, soil, and biological samples. This technique is based on the absorption of light by atoms in the sample, which is directly proportional to the concentration of the element being analyzed [1].
In GFAAS, a sample is vaporized and atomized in a graphite furnace, and the resulting atoms are passed through a beam of light. The atoms absorb light at specific wavelengths that are characteristic of the element being analyzed. The amount of light absorbed is then measured, and this value is used to calculate the concentration of the element in the sample [2].
One of the advantages of GFAAS is its high sensitivity, which allows for the detection of trace levels of cadmium in samples. This technique can detect cadmium at levels as low as 0.1 parts per billion (ppb) in water samples [3]. In addition, GFAAS can be used to analyze a wide range of sample types, including solid, liquid, and gaseous samples.
There are several types of GFAAS instruments, including benchtop instruments and portable instruments. These instruments differ in their size, sensitivity, and the type of sample introduction system that is used. Benchtop instruments are typically larger and more expensive, but they offer higher sensitivity and a wider range of capabilities compared to portable instruments. Portable instruments are smaller and more portable, making them suitable for field use.
There are also several limitations to GFAAS as a method for analyzing cadmium. One limitation is that the sample must be in a homogeneous, solid state in order to be accurately analyzed by this technique [4]. In addition, GFAAS is not suitable for the analysis of water samples that contain high levels of interfering substances, as these substances can interfere with the accuracy of the analysis.
Another limitation of GFAAS is the need for a high-quality graphite furnace, which can be expensive and require frequent maintenance [5]. In addition, the analysis time for GFAAS is typically longer than other atomic absorption techniques, such as flame atomic absorption spectrometry.
Overall, GFAAS is a useful analytical technique for the determination of cadmium in various sample types. While there are limitations to this method, it is widely used due to its high sensitivity and versatility.
[1] P. A. Williams, "Atomic Absorption Spectrometry," in Encyclopedia of Analytical Science, Second Edition, P. J. Harrison and C. Poole, Eds. Oxford: Elsevier, 2005, pp. 92-111.
[2] A. G. H. Dietz and E. P. Horváth, "Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectrometry," in Encyclopedia of Analytical Science, Second Edition, P. J. Harrison and C. Poole, Eds. Oxford: Elsevier, 2005, pp. 442-452.
[3] "Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (GFAAS)." Bruker Corporation.
[4] A. L. Mills and J. R. Payling, "Atomic Absorption Spectrometry," in Analytical Chemistry: An Introduction, Seventh Edition, H. D. Bursten and J. D. Holum, Eds. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2012, pp. 603-619.
[5] J. W. Giddings, "Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectrometry," in Encyclopedia of Analytical Science, Second Edition, P. J. Harrison and C. Poole, Eds. Oxford: Elsevier, 2005, pp. 453-465.
Flame Photometry
Flame photometry is a widely used analytical technique for the determination of cadmium in various sample types, including water, soil, and biological samples. This technique is based on the emission of light by atoms in a flame, which is directly proportional to the concentration of the element being analyzed [1].
In flame photometry, a sample is vaporized and atomized in a flame, and the resulting atoms are excited by the heat of the flame. The excited atoms emit light at specific wavelengths that are characteristic of the element being analyzed. The intensity of the emitted light is then measured, and this value is used to calculate the concentration of the element in the sample [2].
One of the advantages of flame photometry is its simplicity and low cost compared to other analytical techniques. This technique can detect cadmium at levels as low as 1 parts per million (ppm) in water samples [3]. In addition, flame photometry can be used to analyze a wide range of sample types, including solid, liquid, and gaseous samples.
There are several types of flame photometry instruments, including benchtop instruments and portable instruments. These instruments differ in their size, sensitivity, and the type of flame that is used. Benchtop instruments are typically larger and more expensive, but they offer higher sensitivity and a wider range of capabilities compared to portable instruments. Portable instruments are smaller and more portable, making them suitable for field use.
There are also several limitations to flame photometry as a method for analyzing cadmium in water. One limitation is that the sample must be in a homogeneous, liquid state in order to be accurately analyzed by this technique [4]. In addition, flame photometry is not suitable for the analysis of samples that contain high levels of suspended particles or high levels of organic matter, as these substances can interfere with the accuracy of the analysis.
Overall, flame photometry is a useful analytical technique for the determination of cadmium in various sample types. While there are limitations to this method, it is widely used due to its simplicity and low cost.
[1] R. A. Chalmers, "Flame Photometry," in Encyclopedia of Analytical Science, Second Edition, P. J. Harrison and C. Poole, Eds. Oxford: Elsevier, 2005, pp. 719-732.
[2] A. L. Mills and J. R. Payling, "Flame Photometry," in Analytical Chemistry: An Introduction, Seventh Edition, H. D. Bursten and J. D. Holum, Eds. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2012, pp. 603-619.
[3] "Flame Photometry." Thermo Fisher Scientific.
[4] J. M. Dees and D. D. Ducharme, "Flame Photometry," in Analytical Chemistry for Technicians, Fourth Edition, J. R. Dean, Ed. Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis, 2014, pp. 425-441.
Colorimetry
Colorimetry is a widely used analytical technique for the determination of cadmium in various sample types, including water, soil, and biological samples. This technique is based on the measurement of the absorbance of light by a sample at a specific wavelength, which is directly proportional to the concentration of the element being analyzed [1].
In colorimetry, a sample is placed in a cuvette and a beam of light is passed through it. The amount of light absorbed by the sample is then measured, and this value is used to calculate the concentration of the element in the sample [2].
One of the advantages of colorimetry is its simplicity and low cost compared to other analytical techniques. This technique can detect cadmium at levels as low as 1 parts per million (ppm) in water samples [3]. In addition, colorimetry can be used to analyze a wide range of sample types, including solid, liquid, and gaseous samples.
There are several types of colorimetry instruments, including benchtop instruments and portable instruments. These instruments differ in their size, sensitivity, and the type of light source that is used. Benchtop instruments are typically larger and more expensive, but they offer higher sensitivity and a wider range of capabilities compared to portable instruments. Portable instruments are smaller and more portable, making them suitable for field use.
There are also several limitations to colorimetry as a method for analyzing cadmium. One limitation is that the sample must be in a homogeneous, liquid state in order to be accurately analyzed by this technique [4]. In addition, colorimetry is not suitable for the analysis of samples that contain high levels of suspended particles or high levels of organic matter, as these substances can interfere with the accuracy of the analysis.
Another limitation of colorimetry is that it requires the use of specific reagents and standards for each element being analyzed, which can be time-consuming and costly [5]. In addition, the accuracy of colorimetry can be affected by variations in temperature and pH.
Overall, colorimetry is a useful analytical technique for the determination of cadmium in various sample types. While there are limitations to this method, it is widely used due to its simplicity and low cost.
[1] J. K. Taylor and C. E. Gibbs, "Colorimetry," in Encyclopedia of Analytical Science, Second Edition, P. J. Harrison and C. Poole, Eds. Oxford: Elsevier, 2005, pp. 573-588.
[2] A. L. Mills and J. R. Payling, "Colorimetry," in Analytical Chemistry: An Introduction, Seventh Edition, H. D. Bursten and J. D. Holum, Eds. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2012, pp. 531-549.
[3] D. J. Ballantine, "Colorimetry," in Principles and Practices of Analytical Chemistry, Fourth Edition, P. J. Haines and D. J. Ballantine, Eds. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 2012, pp. 297-310.
[4] M. R. Quirino, "Colorimetry," in Analytical Chemistry: An Introduction, Sixth Edition, M. R. Quirino and M. C. C. Quirino, Eds. New York: Marcel Dekker, 2003, pp. 107-130.
[5] "Colorimetry." Wikipedia.
Voltammetry
Voltammetry is a widely used analytical technique for the determination of cadmium in various sample types, including water, soil, and biological samples. This technique is based on the measurement of the current produced during the reduction or oxidation of an element at a specific electrode potential, which is directly proportional to the concentration of the element being analyzed [1].
There are several types of voltammetry, including cyclic voltammetry, square wave voltammetry, and linear sweep voltammetry [2]. In these techniques, a sample is placed in an electrochemical cell with a working electrode, a reference electrode, and a counter electrode. A potential is applied to the working electrode, and the resulting current is measured as the potential is changed. The resulting current-potential curve is used to calculate the concentration of the element in the sample [3].
One of the advantages of voltammetry is its high sensitivity, which allows for the detection of trace levels of cadmium in samples. This technique can detect cadmium at levels as low as 1 parts per billion (ppb) in water samples [4]. In addition, voltammetry can be used to analyze a wide range of sample types, including solid, liquid, and gaseous samples. Moreover, the versatility of voltammetry makes it an invaluable tool in environmental monitoring and safety assessment. By accurately measuring cadmium exposure in drinking water, this method helps to ensure that regulatory standards are met and public health is safeguarded. Furthermore, its ability to provide rapid and precise analyses enables timely interventions to reduce risks associated with cadmium contamination in various ecosystems.
There are several types of voltammetry instruments, including benchtop instruments and portable instruments. These instruments differ in their size, sensitivity, and the type of electrochemical cell that is used. Benchtop instruments are typically larger and more expensive, but they offer higher sensitivity and a wider range of capabilities compared to portable instruments. Portable instruments are smaller and more portable, making them suitable for field use.
There are also several limitations to voltammetry as a method for analyzing cadmium. One limitation is that the sample must be in a homogeneous, liquid state in order to be accurately analyzed by this technique [5]. In addition, voltammetry is not suitable for the analysis of samples that contain high levels of suspended particles or high levels of organic matter, as these substances can interfere with the accuracy of the analysis.
Another limitation of voltammetry is the need for a stable reference electrode, which can be expensive and require frequent maintenance [6]. In addition, the accuracy of voltammetry can be affected by the presence of interfering substances in the sample, as these substances can interfere with the reduction or oxidation of the element being analyzed [7].
Overall, voltammetry is a useful analytical technique for the determination of cadmium in various sample types. While there are limitations to this method, it is widely used due to its high sensitivity and versatility.
[1] P. A. Williams, "Atomic Absorption Spectrometry," in Encyclopedia of Analytical Science, Second Edition, P. J. Harrison and C. Poole, Eds. Oxford: Elsevier, 2005, pp. 92-111.
[2] A. G. H. Dietz and E. P. Horváth, "Electrothermal Atomic Absorption Spectrometry," in Encyclopedia of Analytical Science, Second Edition, P. J. Harrison and C. Poole, Eds. Oxford: Elsevier, 2005, pp. 427-441.
[3] "Electrothermal Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (ETAAS)." Bruker Corporation.
[4] A. L. Mills and J. R. Payling, "Atomic Absorption Spectrometry," in Analytical Chemistry: An Introduction, Seventh Edition, H. D. Bursten and J. D. Holum, Eds. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2012, pp. 603-619.
[5] R. A. Chalmers, "Flame Photometry," in Encyclopedia of Analytical Science, Second Edition, P. J. Harrison and C. Poole, Eds. Oxford: Elsevier, 2005, pp. 719-732.
[6] P. S. Chang and D. S. Shire, "Colorimetry," in Analytical Chemistry: An Introduction, Seventh Edition, H. D. Bursten and J. D. Holum, Eds. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2012, pp. 769-787.
[7] J. M. R. Krogman and D. J. Crouch, "Voltammetry," in Encyclopedia of Analytical Science, Second Edition, P. J. Harrison and C. Poole, Eds. Oxford: Elsevier, 2005, pp. 1782-1796.
Polarography
Polarography is a widely used analytical technique for the determination of cadmium in various sample types, including water, soil, and biological samples. This technique is based on the measurement of the current produced during the reduction or oxidation of an element at a specific electrode potential, which is directly proportional to the concentration of the element being analyzed [1].
In polarography, a sample is placed in an electrochemical cell with a working electrode, a reference electrode, and a counter electrode. A potential is applied to the working electrode, and the resulting current is measured as the potential is changed. The resulting current-potential curve is used to calculate the concentration of the element in the sample [2].
One of the advantages of polarography is its high sensitivity, which allows for the detection of trace levels of cadmium in samples. This technique can detect cadmium at levels as low as 1 parts per billion (ppb) in water samples [3]. In addition, polarography can be used to analyze a wide range of sample types, including solid, liquid, and gaseous samples.
There are several types of polarography instruments, including benchtop instruments and portable instruments. These instruments differ in their size, sensitivity, and the type of electrochemical cell that is used. Benchtop instruments are typically larger and more expensive, but they offer higher sensitivity and a wider range of capabilities compared to portable instruments. Portable instruments are smaller and more portable, making them suitable for field use.
There are also several limitations to polarography as a method for analyzing cadmium. One limitation is that the sample must be in a homogeneous, liquid state in order to be accurately analyzed by this technique [4]. In addition, polarography is not suitable for the analysis of samples that contain high levels of suspended particles or high levels of organic matter, as these substances can interfere with the accuracy of the analysis.
Another limitation of polarography is the need for a stable reference electrode, which can be expensive and require frequent maintenance [5]. In addition, the accuracy of polarography can be affected by variations in temperature and pH.
Overall, polarography is a useful analytical technique for the determination of cadmium in various sample types. While there are limitations to this method, it is widely used due to its high sensitivity and versatility.
[1] L. P. Bard and J. R. Faulkner, "Electroanalytical Methods," in Encyclopedia of Analytical Science, Second Edition, P. J. Harrison and C. Poole, Eds. Oxford: Elsevier, 2005, pp. 1421-1456.
[2] J. D. Birks and J. W. Davenport, "Polarography and Coulometry," in Encyclopedia of Analytical Science, Second Edition, P. J. Harrison and C. Poole, Eds. Oxford: Elsevier, 2005, pp. 1457-1472.
[3] S. P. S. Badwal and A. K. Bajaj, "Polarography," in Analytical Chemistry: An Introduction, Seventh Edition, H. D. Bursten and J. D. Holum, Eds. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2012, pp. 787-813.
[4] J. P. Riley, R. C. Stevens, and J. J. Prencipe, "Introduction to Electroanalytical Chemistry," in Fundamentals of Analytical Chemistry, Seventh Edition, D. A. Skoog, D. M. West, F. J. Holler, and S. R. Crouch, Eds. Boston: Cengage Learning, 2006, pp. 729-759.
[5] L. G. Arnold and D. G. Bowers, "Electrodes and Electrode Kinetics," in Fundamentals of Analytical Chemistry, Seventh Edition, D. A. Skoog, D. M. West, F. J. Holler, and S. R. Crouch, Eds. Boston: Cengage Learning, 2006, pp. 761-792.
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