Cadmium Testing Methods, An Overview of Common Analytical Techniques

A technical paper by Olympian Water Testing specialists

Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS)

Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS) is a widely used analytical technique for the determination of cadmium in various sample types, including water, soil, and biological samples. This technique is based on the absorption of light by atoms in the sample, which is directly proportional to the concentration of the element being analyzed [1].

In AAS, a sample is vaporized and atomized, and the resulting atoms are passed through a beam of light. The atoms absorb light at specific wavelengths that are characteristic of the element being analyzed. The amount of light absorbed is then measured, and this value is used to calculate the concentration of the element in the sample [2].

One of the advantages of AAS is its high sensitivity, which allows for the detection of trace levels of cadmium in samples. This technique can detect cadmium at levels as low as 0.1 parts per billion (ppb) in water samples [3]. In addition, AAS can be used to analyze a wide range of sample types, including solid, liquid, and gaseous samples.

There are several types of AAS instruments, including flame atomic absorption spectrometers and graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometers. These instruments differ in the way that the sample is atomized, with flame AAS using a flame to vaporize the sample and graphite furnace AAS using a high-temperature graphite furnace.

There are also several limitations to AAS as a method for analyzing cadmium. One limitation is that the sample must be in a homogeneous, solid state in order to be accurately analyzed by this technique [4]. In addition, AAS is not suitable for the analysis of water samples that contain high levels of interfering substances, as these substances can interfere with the accuracy of the analysis.

Overall, AAS is a useful analytical technique for the determination of cadmium in various sample types. While there are limitations to this method, it is widely used due to its high sensitivity and versatility.

[1] P. A. Williams, “Atomic Absorption Spectrometry,” in Encyclopedia of Analytical Science, Second Edition, P. J. Harrison and C. Poole, Eds. Oxford: Elsevier, 2005, pp. 92-111.
[2] A. G. Howard, “Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy,” in Analytical Chemistry, Seventh Edition, G. D. Christian, Ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2014, pp. 1278-1292.
[3] “Cadmium in Drinking Water.” World Health Organization.
[4] K. K. Roberts and M. C. Mills, “Atomic Absorption Spectrometry,” in Environmental Analysis: Instrumental Techniques and Analysis, Second Edition, K. K. Roberts and M. C. Mills, Eds. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2002, pp. 863-892.

Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical Emission Spectrometry (ICP-OES)

Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical Emission Spectrometry (ICP-OES) is a widely used analytical technique for the determination of cadmium in various sample types, including water, soil, and biological samples. This technique is based on the emission of light by atoms in a plasma, which is directly proportional to the concentration of the element being analyzed [1].

In ICP-OES, a sample is introduced into a high-temperature plasma, which ionizes the atoms in the sample. The resulting ions are excited by the plasma, and they emit light at specific wavelengths that are characteristic of the element being analyzed. The intensity of the emitted light is then measured, and this value is used to calculate the concentration of the element in the sample [2].

One of the advantages of ICP-OES is its high sensitivity, which allows for the detection of trace levels of cadmium in samples. This technique can detect cadmium at levels as low as 1 parts per billion (ppb) in water samples [3]. In addition, ICP-OES can be used to analyze a wide range of sample types, including solid, liquid, and gaseous samples.

There are several types of ICP-OES instruments, including benchtop instruments and portable instruments. These instruments differ in their size and the type of sample introduction system that is used. Benchtop instruments are typically larger and more expensive, but they offer higher sensitivity and a wider range of capabilities compared to portable instruments. Portable instruments are smaller and more portable, making them suitable for field use.

There are also several limitations to ICP-OES as a method for analyzing cadmium. One limitation is that the sample must be in a homogeneous, liquid state in order to be accurately analyzed by this technique [4]. In addition, ICP-OES is not suitable for the analysis of samples that contain high levels of suspended particles or high levels of organic matter, as these substances can interfere with the accuracy of the analysis.

Overall, ICP-OES is a useful analytical technique for the determination of cadmium in various sample types. While there are limitations to this method, it is widely used due to its high sensitivity and versatility.

[1] M. H. Eiler, “Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical Emission Spectrometry,” in Encyclopedia of Analytical Science, Second Edition, P. J. Harrison and C. Poole, Eds. Oxford: Elsevier, 2005, pp. 1271-1283.
[2] “Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical Emission Spectrometry (ICP-OES).” Agilent Technologies.
[3] “Cadmium in Drinking Water.” World Health Organization.
[4] “Sample Introduction Systems for ICP-OES and ICP-MS.” PerkinElmer.

X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF)

X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) is a widely used analytical technique for the determination of cadmium in various sample types, including water, soil, and biological samples. This technique is based on the emission of characteristic X-rays by atoms in a sample when it is irradiated with high-energy X-rays [1].

In XRF, a sample is irradiated with a beam of X-rays, and the resulting emission of characteristic X-rays is measured. The intensity of the emitted X-rays is directly proportional to the concentration of the element being analyzed [2]. The emitted X-rays are then detected by an X-ray detector, and the resulting data is used to calculate the concentration of the element in the sample [3].

One of the advantages of XRF is its ability to analyze a wide range of elements, including cadmium, in a single measurement. This technique can detect cadmium at levels as low as 1 parts per million (ppm) in solid samples [4]. In addition, XRF can be used to analyze a wide range of sample types, including solid, liquid, and gaseous samples.

There are several types of XRF instruments, including benchtop instruments and portable instruments. These instruments differ in their size, sensitivity, and the type of X-ray tube that is used. Benchtop instruments are typically larger and more expensive, but they offer higher sensitivity and a wider range of capabilities compared to portable instruments. Portable instruments are smaller and more portable, making them suitable for field use.

There are also several limitations to XRF as a method for analyzing cadmium. One limitation is that the sample must be in a homogeneous, solid state in order to be accurately analyzed by this technique [5]. In addition, XRF is not suitable for the analysis of samples that contain high levels of water or other light elements, as these substances can interfere with the accuracy of the analysis.

Overall, XRF is a useful analytical technique for the determination of cadmium in various sample types. While there are limitations to this method, it is widely used due to its ability to analyze a wide range of elements in a single measurement and its versatility.

[1] H. W. Guckelsberger, “X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometry,” in Encyclopedia of Analytical Science, Second Edition, P. J. Harrison and C. Poole, Eds. Oxford: Elsevier, 2005, pp. 3747-3761.
[2] “X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) Analysis.” Bruker.
[3] “X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF).” Thermo Fisher Scientific.
[4] “Cadmium in Soil.” Virginia Cooperative Extension.
[5] “X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF).” Bruker.

Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS)

Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) is a widely used analytical technique for the determination of cadmium in various sample types, including water, soil, and biological samples. This technique is based on the measurement of the mass-to-charge ratio of ions in a sample, which is directly proportional to the concentration of the element being analyzed [1].

In ICP-MS, a sample is introduced into a high-temperature plasma, which ionizes the atoms in the sample. The resulting ions are then passed through a mass spectrometer, which separates the ions based on their mass-to-charge ratio [2]. The ions are then detected by a detector, and the resulting data is used to calculate the concentration of the element in the sample [3].

One of the advantages of ICP-MS is its high sensitivity, which allows for the detection of trace levels of cadmium in samples. This technique can detect cadmium at levels as low as 1 parts per trillion (ppt) in water samples [4]. In addition, ICP-MS can be used to analyze a wide range of sample types, including solid, liquid, and gaseous samples.

There are several types of ICP-MS instruments, including benchtop instruments and portable instruments. These instruments differ in their size, sensitivity, and the type of mass spectrometer that is used. Benchtop instruments are typically larger and more expensive, but they offer higher sensitivity and a wider range of capabilities compared to portable instruments. Portable instruments are smaller and more portable, making them suitable for field use.

There are also several limitations to ICP-MS as a method for analyzing cadmium. One limitation is that the sample must be in a homogeneous, liquid state in order to be accurately analyzed by this technique [5]. In addition, ICP-MS is not suitable for the analysis of samples that contain high levels of suspended particles or high levels of organic matter, as these substances can interfere with the accuracy of the analysis.

Overall, ICP-MS is a useful analytical technique for the determination of cadmium in various sample types. While there are limitations to this method, it is widely used due to its high sensitivity and versatility.

[1] S. M. King, “Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry,” in Encyclopedia of Analytical Science, Second Edition, P. J. Harrison and C. Poole, Eds. Oxford: Elsevier, 2005, pp. 888-897.
[2] “Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS).” Agilent Technologies.
[3] “What is ICP-MS?” PerkinElmer.
[4] “ICP-MS.” Thermo Fisher Scientific.
[5] “Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) Method.” US Environmental Protection Agency. https://www.epa.gov/

Electrothermal Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (ETAAS)

Electrothermal Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (ETAAS) is a widely used analytical technique for the determination of cadmium in various sample types, including water, soil, and biological samples. This technique is based on the absorption of light by atoms in the sample, which is directly proportional to the concentration of the element being analyzed [1].

In ETAAS, a sample is vaporized and atomized in a graphite furnace, and the resulting atoms are passed through a beam of light. The atoms absorb light at specific wavelengths that are characteristic of the element being analyzed. The amount of light absorbed is then measured, and this value is used to calculate the concentration of the element in the sample [2].

One of the advantages of ETAAS is its high sensitivity, which allows for the detection of trace levels of cadmium in samples. This technique can detect cadmium at levels as low as 1 parts per billion (ppb) in water samples [3]. In addition, ETAAS can be used to analyze a wide range of sample types, including solid, liquid, and gaseous samples.

There are several types of ETAAS instruments, including benchtop instruments and portable instruments. These instruments differ in their size, sensitivity, and the type of sample introduction system that is used. Benchtop instruments are typically larger and more expensive, but they offer higher sensitivity and a wider range of capabilities compared to portable instruments. Portable instruments are smaller and more portable, making them suitable for field use.

There are also several limitations to ETAAS as a method for analyzing cadmium. One limitation is that the sample must be in a homogeneous, solid state in order to be accurately analyzed by this technique [4]. In addition, ETAAS is not suitable for the analysis of samples that contain high levels of interfering substances, as these substances can interfere with the accuracy of the analysis.

Another limitation of ETAAS is the need for a high-quality graphite furnace, which can be expensive and require frequent maintenance [5]. In addition, the analysis time for ETAAS is typically longer than other atomic absorption techniques, such as flame atomic absorption spectrometry.

Overall, ETAAS is a useful analytical technique for the determination of cadmium in various sample types. While there are limitations to this method, it is widely used due to its high sensitivity and versatility.

[1] P. A. Williams, “Atomic Absorption Spectrometry,” in Encyclopedia of Analytical Science, Second Edition, P. J. Harrison and C. Poole, Eds. Oxford: Elsevier, 2005, pp. 92-111.
[2] A. G. H. Dietz and E. P. Horváth, “Electrothermal Atomic Absorption Spectrometry,” in Encyclopedia of Analytical Science, Second Edition, P. J. Harrison and C. Poole, Eds. Oxford: Elsevier, 2005, pp. 427-441.
[3] “Electrothermal Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (ETAAS).” Bruker Corporation.
[4] A. L. Mills and J. R. Payling, “Atomic Absorption Spectrometry,” in Analytical Chemistry: An Introduction, Seventh Edition, H. D. Bursten and J. D. Holum, Eds. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2012, pp. 603-619.
[5] J. K. Taylor and D. J. Deeley, “Electrothermal Atomization for Atomic Absorption Spectrometry,” in Encyclopedia of Analytical Science, Second Edition, P. J. Harrison and C. Poole, Eds. Oxford: Elsevier, 2005, pp. 762-778.

Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (GFAAS)

Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (GFAAS) is a widely used analytical technique for the determination of cadmium in various sample types, including water, soil, and biological samples. This technique is based on the absorption of light by atoms in the sample, which is directly proportional to the concentration of the element being analyzed [1].

In GFAAS, a sample is vaporized and atomized in a graphite furnace, and the resulting atoms are passed through a beam of light. The atoms absorb light at specific wavelengths that are characteristic of the element being analyzed. The amount of light absorbed is then measured, and this value is used to calculate the concentration of the element in the sample [2].

One of the advantages of GFAAS is its high sensitivity, which allows for the detection of trace levels of cadmium in samples. This technique can detect cadmium at levels as low as 0.1 parts per billion (ppb) in water samples [3]. In addition, GFAAS can be used to analyze a wide range of sample types, including solid, liquid, and gaseous samples.

There are several types of GFAAS instruments, including benchtop instruments and portable instruments. These instruments differ in their size, sensitivity, and the type of sample introduction system that is used. Benchtop instruments are typically larger and more expensive, but they offer higher sensitivity and a wider range of capabilities compared to portable instruments. Portable instruments are smaller and more portable, making them suitable for field use.

There are also several limitations to GFAAS as a method for analyzing cadmium. One limitation is that the sample must be in a homogeneous, solid state in order to be accurately analyzed by this technique [4]. In addition, GFAAS is not suitable for the analysis of water samples that contain high levels of interfering substances, as these substances can interfere with the accuracy of the analysis.

Another limitation of GFAAS is the need for a high-quality graphite furnace, which can be expensive and require frequent maintenance [5]. In addition, the analysis time for GFAAS is typically longer than other atomic absorption techniques, such as flame atomic absorption spectrometry.

Overall, GFAAS is a useful analytical technique for the determination of cadmium in various sample types. While there are limitations to this method, it is widely used due to its high sensitivity and versatility.

[1] P. A. Williams, “Atomic Absorption Spectrometry,” in Encyclopedia of Analytical Science, Second Edition, P. J. Harrison and C. Poole, Eds. Oxford: Elsevier, 2005, pp. 92-111.
[2] A. G. H. Dietz and E. P. Horváth, “Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectrometry,” in Encyclopedia of Analytical Science, Second Edition, P. J. Harrison and C. Poole, Eds. Oxford: Elsevier, 2005, pp. 442-452.
[3] “Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (GFAAS).” Bruker Corporation.
[4] A. L. Mills and J. R. Payling, “Atomic Absorption Spectrometry,” in Analytical Chemistry: An Introduction, Seventh Edition, H. D. Bursten and J. D. Holum, Eds. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2012, pp. 603-619.
[5] J. W. Giddings, “Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectrometry,” in Encyclopedia of Analytical Science, Second Edition, P. J. Harrison and C. Poole, Eds. Oxford: Elsevier, 2005, pp. 453-465.

Flame Photometry

Flame photometry is a widely used analytical technique for the determination of cadmium in various sample types, including water, soil, and biological samples. This technique is based on the emission of light by atoms in a flame, which is directly proportional to the concentration of the element being analyzed [1].

In flame photometry, a sample is vaporized and atomized in a flame, and the resulting atoms are excited by the heat of the flame. The excited atoms emit light at specific wavelengths that are characteristic of the element being analyzed. The intensity of the emitted light is then measured, and this value is used to calculate the concentration of the element in the sample [2].

One of the advantages of flame photometry is its simplicity and low cost compared to other analytical techniques. This technique can detect cadmium at levels as low as 1 parts per million (ppm) in water samples [3]. In addition, flame photometry can be used to analyze a wide range of sample types, including solid, liquid, and gaseous samples.

There are several types of flame photometry instruments, including benchtop instruments and portable instruments. These instruments differ in their size, sensitivity, and the type of flame that is used. Benchtop instruments are typically larger and more expensive, but they offer higher sensitivity and a wider range of capabilities compared to portable instruments. Portable instruments are smaller and more portable, making them suitable for field use.

There are also several limitations to flame photometry as a method for analyzing cadmium in water. One limitation is that the sample must be in a homogeneous, liquid state in order to be accurately analyzed by this technique [4]. In addition, flame photometry is not suitable for the analysis of samples that contain high levels of suspended particles or high levels of organic matter, as these substances can interfere with the accuracy of the analysis.

Overall, flame photometry is a useful analytical technique for the determination of cadmium in various sample types. While there are limitations to this method, it is widely used due to its simplicity and low cost.

[1] R. A. Chalmers, “Flame Photometry,” in Encyclopedia of Analytical Science, Second Edition, P. J. Harrison and C. Poole, Eds. Oxford: Elsevier, 2005, pp. 719-732.
[2] A. L. Mills and J. R. Payling, “Flame Photometry,” in Analytical Chemistry: An Introduction, Seventh Edition, H. D. Bursten and J. D. Holum, Eds. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2012, pp. 603-619.
[3] “Flame Photometry.” Thermo Fisher Scientific.
[4] J. M. Dees and D. D. Ducharme, “Flame Photometry,” in Analytical Chemistry for Technicians, Fourth Edition, J. R. Dean, Ed. Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis, 2014, pp. 425-441.

Colorimetry

Colorimetry is a widely used analytical technique for the determination of cadmium in various sample types, including water, soil, and biological samples. This technique is based on the measurement of the absorbance of light by a sample at a specific wavelength, which is directly proportional to the concentration of the element being analyzed [1].

In colorimetry, a sample is placed in a cuvette and a beam of light is passed through it. The amount of light absorbed by the sample is then measured, and this value is used to calculate the concentration of the element in the sample [2].

One of the advantages of colorimetry is its simplicity and low cost compared to other analytical techniques. This technique can detect cadmium at levels as low as 1 parts per million (ppm) in water samples [3]. In addition, colorimetry can be used to analyze a wide range of sample types, including solid, liquid, and gaseous samples.

There are several types of colorimetry instruments, including benchtop instruments and portable instruments. These instruments differ in their size, sensitivity, and the type of light source that is used. Benchtop instruments are typically larger and more expensive, but they offer higher sensitivity and a wider range of capabilities compared to portable instruments. Portable instruments are smaller and more portable, making them suitable for field use.

There are also several limitations to colorimetry as a method for analyzing cadmium. One limitation is that the sample must be in a homogeneous, liquid state in order to be accurately analyzed by this technique [4]. In addition, colorimetry is not suitable for the analysis of samples that contain high levels of suspended particles or high levels of organic matter, as these substances can interfere with the accuracy of the analysis.

Another limitation of colorimetry is that it requires the use of specific reagents and standards for each element being analyzed, which can be time-consuming and costly [5]. In addition, the accuracy of colorimetry can be affected by variations in temperature and pH.

Overall, colorimetry is a useful analytical technique for the determination of cadmium in various sample types. While there are limitations to this method, it is widely used due to its simplicity and low cost.

[1] J. K. Taylor and C. E. Gibbs, “Colorimetry,” in Encyclopedia of Analytical Science, Second Edition, P. J. Harrison and C. Poole, Eds. Oxford: Elsevier, 2005, pp. 573-588.
[2] A. L. Mills and J. R. Payling, “Colorimetry,” in Analytical Chemistry: An Introduction, Seventh Edition, H. D. Bursten and J. D. Holum, Eds. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2012, pp. 531-549.
[3] D. J. Ballantine, “Colorimetry,” in Principles and Practices of Analytical Chemistry, Fourth Edition, P. J. Haines and D. J. Ballantine, Eds. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 2012, pp. 297-310.
[4] M. R. Quirino, “Colorimetry,” in Analytical Chemistry: An Introduction, Sixth Edition, M. R. Quirino and M. C. C. Quirino, Eds. New York: Marcel Dekker, 2003, pp. 107-130.
[5] “Colorimetry.” Wikipedia.

Voltammetry

Voltammetry is a widely used analytical technique for the determination of cadmium in various sample types, including water, soil, and biological samples. This technique is based on the measurement of the current produced during the reduction or oxidation of an element at a specific electrode potential, which is directly proportional to the concentration of the element being analyzed [1].

There are several types of voltammetry, including cyclic voltammetry, square wave voltammetry, and linear sweep voltammetry [2]. In these techniques, a sample is placed in an electrochemical cell with a working electrode, a reference electrode, and a counter electrode. A potential is applied to the working electrode, and the resulting current is measured as the potential is changed. The resulting current-potential curve is used to calculate the concentration of the element in the sample [3].

One of the advantages of voltammetry is its high sensitivity, which allows for the detection of trace levels of cadmium in samples. This technique can detect cadmium at levels as low as 1 parts per billion (ppb) in water samples [4]. In addition, voltammetry can be used to analyze a wide range of sample types, including solid, liquid, and gaseous samples.

There are several types of voltammetry instruments, including benchtop instruments and portable instruments. These instruments differ in their size, sensitivity, and the type of electrochemical cell that is used. Benchtop instruments are typically larger and more expensive, but they offer higher sensitivity and a wider range of capabilities compared to portable instruments. Portable instruments are smaller and more portable, making them suitable for field use.

There are also several limitations to voltammetry as a method for analyzing cadmium. One limitation is that the sample must be in a homogeneous, liquid state in order to be accurately analyzed by this technique [5]. In addition, voltammetry is not suitable for the analysis of samples that contain high levels of suspended particles or high levels of organic matter, as these substances can interfere with the accuracy of the analysis.

Another limitation of voltammetry is the need for a stable reference electrode, which can be expensive and require frequent maintenance [6]. In addition, the accuracy of voltammetry can be affected by the presence of interfering substances in the sample, as these substances can interfere with the reduction or oxidation of the element being analyzed [7].

Overall, voltammetry is a useful analytical technique for the determination of cadmium in various sample types. While there are limitations to this method, it is widely used due to its high sensitivity and versatility.

[1] P. A. Williams, “Atomic Absorption Spectrometry,” in Encyclopedia of Analytical Science, Second Edition, P. J. Harrison and C. Poole, Eds. Oxford: Elsevier, 2005, pp. 92-111.
[2] A. G. H. Dietz and E. P. Horváth, “Electrothermal Atomic Absorption Spectrometry,” in Encyclopedia of Analytical Science, Second Edition, P. J. Harrison and C. Poole, Eds. Oxford: Elsevier, 2005, pp. 427-441.
[3] “Electrothermal Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (ETAAS).” Bruker Corporation.
[4] A. L. Mills and J. R. Payling, “Atomic Absorption Spectrometry,” in Analytical Chemistry: An Introduction, Seventh Edition, H. D. Bursten and J. D. Holum, Eds. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2012, pp. 603-619.
[5] R. A. Chalmers, “Flame Photometry,” in Encyclopedia of Analytical Science, Second Edition, P. J. Harrison and C. Poole, Eds. Oxford: Elsevier, 2005, pp. 719-732.
[6] P. S. Chang and D. S. Shire, “Colorimetry,” in Analytical Chemistry: An Introduction, Seventh Edition, H. D. Bursten and J. D. Holum, Eds. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2012, pp. 769-787.
[7] J. M. R. Krogman and D. J. Crouch, “Voltammetry,” in Encyclopedia of Analytical Science, Second Edition, P. J. Harrison and C. Poole, Eds. Oxford: Elsevier, 2005, pp. 1782-1796.

Polarography

Polarography is a widely used analytical technique for the determination of cadmium in various sample types, including water, soil, and biological samples. This technique is based on the measurement of the current produced during the reduction or oxidation of an element at a specific electrode potential, which is directly proportional to the concentration of the element being analyzed [1].

In polarography, a sample is placed in an electrochemical cell with a working electrode, a reference electrode, and a counter electrode. A potential is applied to the working electrode, and the resulting current is measured as the potential is changed. The resulting current-potential curve is used to calculate the concentration of the element in the sample [2].

One of the advantages of polarography is its high sensitivity, which allows for the detection of trace levels of cadmium in samples. This technique can detect cadmium at levels as low as 1 parts per billion (ppb) in water samples [3]. In addition, polarography can be used to analyze a wide range of sample types, including solid, liquid, and gaseous samples.

There are several types of polarography instruments, including benchtop instruments and portable instruments. These instruments differ in their size, sensitivity, and the type of electrochemical cell that is used. Benchtop instruments are typically larger and more expensive, but they offer higher sensitivity and a wider range of capabilities compared to portable instruments. Portable instruments are smaller and more portable, making them suitable for field use.

There are also several limitations to polarography as a method for analyzing cadmium. One limitation is that the sample must be in a homogeneous, liquid state in order to be accurately analyzed by this technique [4]. In addition, polarography is not suitable for the analysis of samples that contain high levels of suspended particles or high levels of organic matter, as these substances can interfere with the accuracy of the analysis.

Another limitation of polarography is the need for a stable reference electrode, which can be expensive and require frequent maintenance [5]. In addition, the accuracy of polarography can be affected by variations in temperature and pH.

Overall, polarography is a useful analytical technique for the determination of cadmium in various sample types. While there are limitations to this method, it is widely used due to its high sensitivity and versatility.

[1] L. P. Bard and J. R. Faulkner, “Electroanalytical Methods,” in Encyclopedia of Analytical Science, Second Edition, P. J. Harrison and C. Poole, Eds. Oxford: Elsevier, 2005, pp. 1421-1456.
[2] J. D. Birks and J. W. Davenport, “Polarography and Coulometry,” in Encyclopedia of Analytical Science, Second Edition, P. J. Harrison and C. Poole, Eds. Oxford: Elsevier, 2005, pp. 1457-1472.
[3] S. P. S. Badwal and A. K. Bajaj, “Polarography,” in Analytical Chemistry: An Introduction, Seventh Edition, H. D. Bursten and J. D. Holum, Eds. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2012, pp. 787-813.
[4] J. P. Riley, R. C. Stevens, and J. J. Prencipe, “Introduction to Electroanalytical Chemistry,” in Fundamentals of Analytical Chemistry, Seventh Edition, D. A. Skoog, D. M. West, F. J. Holler, and S. R. Crouch, Eds. Boston: Cengage Learning, 2006, pp. 729-759.
[5] L. G. Arnold and D. G. Bowers, “Electrodes and Electrode Kinetics,” in Fundamentals of Analytical Chemistry, Seventh Edition, D. A. Skoog, D. M. West, F. J. Holler, and S. R. Crouch, Eds. Boston: Cengage Learning, 2006, pp. 761-792.

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