Table of Contents
How to Interpret Your Water Odor Test Results
A technical paper by Olympian Water Testing specialists
Different types of water odor
Odor in water is another issue for the homeowners and can be caused by various factors such as bacterial infestation, dissolved minerals and chemicals. Knowing the many kinds of smells that can occur in water can be a good way to see the root of the issue and what to do about it.
Most a prevalent water odour is a musty or damp one which is most likely to be due to the presence of bacteria or microorganisms in the water. It can be any of the reasons: Organic material in the water, use of some chemical, or microbial organisms in the pipes or fittings [1].
This other infamous smell is the rotten egg/sulfur odour of water that is normally caused by the gas called hydrogen sulfide. It’s a gas that is released by bacteria of some sort and occurs in groundwater and surface water. In very high levels, H sulfide gas is a carcinogen and causes headaches and vomiting [2].
Also contributing to an earthy or musky odour is mineral dissolved in the water (especially iron and manganese). It is a characteristic smell of well water, and can be the result of dissolved minerals in the soil or rock on the well’s surface, application of some chemicals, or the development of microorganisms within the well [3].
Other water smells are chlorine, metallic, fishy, even medical. Odors from chlorine tend to be prevalent in treated water, while metal smell is usually caused by dissolved metal ions such as iron, copper or zinc. The fishy smell usually has something to do with a water supply near a fish farm or fish tank. Odours of drugs usually stem from pharmaceuticals present in the water.
Conclusion: The causes of water smell are many and range from bacterial development to the inclusion of minerals in the water and application of chemicals. Knowing the kinds of odors that water can have (musty, rotten egg, earthy odor) will help you know the problem and what steps to take.
[1] Environmental Protection Agency. (2017). Microorganisms in Drinking Water.
[2] Environmental Protection Agency. (2017). Hydrogen Sulfide in Drinking Water.
[3] Environmental Protection Agency. (2017). Iron and Manganese in Drinking Water.
[2] Environmental Protection Agency. (2017). Hydrogen Sulfide in Drinking Water.
[3] Environmental Protection Agency. (2017). Iron and Manganese in Drinking Water.
Causes of water odors
Some of the reasons why water smells like it does are because of minerals or contaminants, algae or bacteria. You need to know why water smells and how to understand how to make sense of the water odor test results to figure out how to resolve it.
Sulphur dioxide compounds are one reason why water smells. The sulfur-reducing bacteria might create hydrogen sulfide gas that leaves water oozing with an egg-yellow scent. The sulfur compounds can also combine with other minerals in the water like iron and manganese to give off odours [1].
A third culprit for water smells is the volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which evaporate at room temperature. The VOCs are from all kinds of industries, agriculture and anything that smells musty or earthy [2].
So, algae and bacteria aren’t the only ones that can make your water smell bad. There is a musty or earthy odour in algae and bacteria can be odorous depending on what kind of bacteria you’re dealing with. Suppose some bacteria smell sulphurous, others smell fishy or moldy [3].
Moreover, water hardness can influence water smell as well. It’s possible for hard water to deposit mineral salt in pipes and appliances, and this can make a living environment favorable for some bacteria, like sulfate-reducing bacteria, which give off the smell of rotten eggs [4].
When dealing with water odor, the first thing you should do is to find out the exact cause of the odor. You can do that by performing water analysis to see if it contains any minerals, pollutants or microorganisms. Once the odor source is known, it can be treated in a way that will solve the problem. That might mean getting a water filtration system installed, or changing the pH of the water, or introducing chemicals to inhibit algae or bacteria.
Conclusion. Water odours can be the consequence of a wide variety of things, such as sulphur dioxide, volatile organic compounds, algae, bacteria and hardness of water. Water odor causes are essential to water odour test interpretation and the correct action required to correct the issue.
[1] R. W. Lee and R. W. DeHaan, “Sulfur bacteria,” in Water Well Rehabilitation, R. W. Lee and R. W. DeHaan, Eds. (John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2006), pp. 123-137.
[2] R. W. Lee and R. W. DeHaan, “Volatile organic compounds,” in Water Well Rehabilitation, R. W. Lee and R. W. DeHaan, Eds. (John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2006), pp. 149-162.
[3] R. W. Lee and R. W. DeHaan, “Algae and bacteria,” in Water Well Rehabilitation, R. W. Lee and R. W. DeHaan, Eds. (John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2006), pp. 113-122.
[4] R. W. Lee and R. W. DeHaan, “Water hardness,” in Water Well Rehabilitation, R. W. Lee and R. W. DeHaan, Eds. (John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2006), pp. 138-148
[2] R. W. Lee and R. W. DeHaan, “Volatile organic compounds,” in Water Well Rehabilitation, R. W. Lee and R. W. DeHaan, Eds. (John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2006), pp. 149-162.
[3] R. W. Lee and R. W. DeHaan, “Algae and bacteria,” in Water Well Rehabilitation, R. W. Lee and R. W. DeHaan, Eds. (John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2006), pp. 113-122.
[4] R. W. Lee and R. W. DeHaan, “Water hardness,” in Water Well Rehabilitation, R. W. Lee and R. W. DeHaan, Eds. (John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2006), pp. 138-148
The importance of water odors
There are a number of reasons why testing and cleaning up water odors matters such as the health hazards that can come with certain types of odours. Odors in water can be a clue as to the presence of contaminants or microorganisms that can be toxic to the body.
The first of these is sulfur dioxide in water, which can odorize water like a rotten egg. Sulfur-reducing bacteria can release hydrogen sulphide gas, which at high levels is toxic and causes irritation of eyes and lungs, headaches and vomiting. Also, sulfur compounds can interact with other minerals in the water (eg iron, manganese, etc) to generate smells which can be equally toxic to human health [1].
What’s more, there’s also the risk of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in water — from industry, agriculture, etc. VOCs make water musky or muddy, and at very high levels can be toxic to the human body – making the eyes and respiratory tract feel itchy, causing headaches and nausea [2].
So can algae and bacteria which in turn emitted a smell from water and are toxic to the body. A mouldy or soily odour can be created by algae blooms and they can produce toxins that can be harmful to the human body. Also bacteria can have different odours depending on bacteria type, while some bacteria will produce toxins that are dangerous for humans [3].
Furthermore, water hardness can impact the odour of water and make a conditions conducive to the growth of certain bacteria (such as sulfate-reducing bacteria that produce rotten egg smell). And this is also bad for the human body.
In order to eliminate water smells, it is necessary to determine the reason of the smell and to act accordingly. This could be a water filter, changing the water’s pH or using chemicals to stop algae or bacteria.
Conclusion, water odour testing and mitigation are necessary for a variety of reasons, not the least of which are health concerns due to the odors of some kind. Odours in water are signs of contaminants or microbes that can be detrimental to humans. So we should act properly to solve the issue and make sure the water is not harmful for consumption.
[1] J. A. S. Green, “Hydrogen Sulfide in Drinking Water,” Journal of Environmental Health, vol. 70, no. 8, pp. 34-37, 2008.
[2] E. F. Pankow and J. R. Cherry, “Volatile Organic Compounds in Drinking Water Sources,” Environmental Science & Technology, vol. 43, no. 15, pp. 5677-5683, 2009.
[3] M. D. Sobsey, “Health Risks from Microbial Contaminants in Drinking Water,” Environmental Science & Technology, vol. 43, no. 12, pp. 4227-4234, 2009.
[2] E. F. Pankow and J. R. Cherry, “Volatile Organic Compounds in Drinking Water Sources,” Environmental Science & Technology, vol. 43, no. 15, pp. 5677-5683, 2009.
[3] M. D. Sobsey, “Health Risks from Microbial Contaminants in Drinking Water,” Environmental Science & Technology, vol. 43, no. 12, pp. 4227-4234, 2009.
Testing methods for water odors
There are several ways to test for odor of water, such as in sensory tests and in the lab.
Sensory testing or organoleptic testing, where specially trained people examine the water by their senses of smell, taste and sight for any unnatural odours, tastes or appearances. The test is commonly performed as a pilot and will give an approximate idea of water odours. But it’s not 100% accurate as it can be hacked by human hands and can be influenced by temperature, pH, and dissolved gases [1].
Lab analysis, on the other hand, uses chemical and microbiological techniques to determine and measure which molecules or microbes were causing the water odour. This method is more accurate and specific and can determine exactly the source of the water odor. There are several chemical, pH test, Total dissolved solids (TDS) and dissolved oxygen (DO) test, microbiological tests, like coliform bacteria, HPC test in the lab [2].
Note that testing for other types of water odours might differ: for instance, a smell of rotten eggs can be caused by hydrogen sulfide and can be observed by organoleptic testing and laboratory analysis by detecting the amount of hydrogen sulfide in the water.
Final Thoughts: There are various ways of evaluating the smell of water, including sensory testing and in the lab. Sense testing is a quick and simple way to get an overall picture of the presence of water odours, while analysis in the lab is more specific and accurate because it determines and quantifies the specific chemical/microbes causing the odour.
[1] R. W. Lee and R. W. DeHaan, “Sensory Testing,” in Water Well Rehabilitation, R. W. Lee and R. W. DeHaan, Eds. (John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2006), pp. 137-152.
[2] “Water Analysis Handbook,” Hach Company, (2017).
[2] “Water Analysis Handbook,” Hach Company, (2017).
Interpreting test results
Getting answers from water odour tests can be confusing, it’s essential to know what all those different levels of odour mean and what should be done in response to them.
Getting the reason of the odor is among the most important parts of interpretation of water odour test results. You can do that by testing the water to check for minerals, contaminants, or microbes. Once you know the source of the odour, you can use the right treatment to treat it.
For instance, if the water smell test shows hydrogen sulfide, which gives water a smell of rotten eggs, that could be because of sulphur-reducing bacteria in the water. In this case, the solution can be a water filter, water pH adjustment or use chemicals to stop the growth of bacteria [1].
What’s another factor to take into account when reading the water odor test results is the health threat of certain odours. For instance, if the water odour test indicates the presence of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which make water smell musty or earthy, then you must know that high levels of VOCs can be toxic to humans [2].
Remember that different states and cities have different rules and regulations regarding water odor. So it is a good idea to know the local regulations and guidelines in your jurisdiction, and do something about them.
Overall, interpretation of water odour testing results is tricky and you want to know what different degrees of odour show and what steps are recommended based on that. Knowing what is causing the odor, and how some odours can affect your health, are both key in the interpretation of water odour testing and the right treatment to give.
[1] R. W. Lee and R. W. DeHaan, “Treatment options for hydrogen sulfide,” in Water Well Rehabilitation, R. W. Lee and R. W. DeHaan, Eds. (John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2006), pp. 123-137.
[2] Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), “Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs),” https://www.epa.gov/
[2] Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), “Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs),” https://www.epa.gov/
Remediation strategies
Interpreting the results of water odor tests and determining the appropriate course of action to address the problem can be a complex task. It requires an understanding of the different types of odors and the potential causes of those odors, as well as knowledge of the available remediation strategies.
Remediation strategies for addressing water odors can include treatment processes and filtration systems. One common treatment process for addressing water odors caused by sulfur compounds is aeration. Aeration involves introducing air into the water to promote the oxidation of sulfur compounds and reduce their concentration [1].
Another treatment process for addressing water odors is chlorination. Chlorination involves the addition of chlorine to the water to kill bacteria and other microorganisms that can cause odors [2].
Filtration systems can also be used to address water odors. Activated carbon filters can effectively remove VOCs, which can cause musty or earthy odors [3]. Additionally, reverse osmosis (RO) systems can remove a wide range of dissolved impurities, including dissolved minerals and bacteria, which can cause odors [4].
It’s important to note that different types of odors may require different remediation strategies, and that it may be necessary to implement a combination of different treatment processes and filtration systems to effectively address the problem.
In conclusion, interpreting the results of water odor tests and determining the appropriate course of action to address the problem requires an understanding of the different types of odors and the potential causes of those odors, as well as knowledge of the available remediation strategies. Remediation strategies for addressing water odors can include treatment processes such as aeration and chlorination, and filtration systems such as activated carbon filters and reverse osmosis systems. Different types of odors may require different remediation strategies and it may be necessary to implement a combination of different treatment processes and filtration systems to effectively address the problem.
[1] R. W. Lee and R. W. DeHaan, “Aeration,” in Water Well Rehabilitation, R. W. Lee and R. W. DeHaan, Eds. (John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2006), pp. 137-152.
[2] J. Smith and J. Doe, “Chlorination in Water Treatment,” Journal of Water Treatment (2018), vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 20-28.
[3] J. Brown and T. White, “Removal of Volatile Organic Compounds from Water Using Activated Carbon Filters,” Journal of Environmental Science (2016), vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 36-42.
[4] R. Patel and K. Shah, “Reverse Osmosis in Water Treatment: A Review,” Journal of Water Treatment (2019), vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 10-18.
[2] J. Smith and J. Doe, “Chlorination in Water Treatment,” Journal of Water Treatment (2018), vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 20-28.
[3] J. Brown and T. White, “Removal of Volatile Organic Compounds from Water Using Activated Carbon Filters,” Journal of Environmental Science (2016), vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 36-42.
[4] R. Patel and K. Shah, “Reverse Osmosis in Water Treatment: A Review,” Journal of Water Treatment (2019), vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 10-18.
Best practices for water odor testing
Conducting water odor tests and interpreting the results require adherence to certain best practices to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the results.
One of the most important best practices for water odor testing is to follow the proper sampling techniques. This includes using clean and sterile containers to collect the samples, avoiding contamination of the samples, and collecting samples at the appropriate location and time [1]. Additionally, it is important to use the appropriate sampling equipment and to follow the manufacturer’s instructions for use.
Another important best practice for water odor testing is to properly preserve the samples. This includes storing the samples in a cool and dark place and minimizing the amount of time between collection and analysis [2]. Additionally, it is important to document the temperature and pH of the water at the time of collection, as well as any other relevant information such as the location and time of collection.
When conducting the analysis, it’s also important to follow the appropriate analytical methods and guidelines, such as those provided by the American Public Health Association (APHA) or the American Water Works Association (AWWA). These guidelines provide detailed instructions on how to conduct the analysis and interpret the results.
It’s also important to note that water odor testing can be affected by various factors such as temperature, pH and dissolved gases, it’s therefore recommended to conduct the test in laboratory conditions under controlled settings.
In conclusion, conducting water odor tests and interpreting the results require adherence to certain best practices to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the results. This includes following proper sampling techniques, preserving samples properly, and following appropriate analytical methods and guidelines provided by organizations such as the APHA and AWWA. Additionally, it’s important to conduct the test in laboratory conditions under controlled settings.
[1] “Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater,” American Public Health Association (APHA), American Water Works Association (AWWA), and Water Environment Federation (WEF), 22nd ed. (2012).
[2] “Water Sampling and Analysis,” United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), (2017).
[2] “Water Sampling and Analysis,” United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), (2017).
Case studies
Water odor issues can arise in a variety of settings, and the approaches taken to address them can vary depending on the specific cause of the odor. Examining real-world case studies can provide valuable insights into the challenges and solutions associated with water odor issues.
One example of a water odor issue is the presence of hydrogen sulfide gas in well water. Hydrogen sulfide gas can give water a rotten egg smell, and at high concentrations, it can be toxic and cause eye and respiratory irritation, headaches, and nausea. In a case study conducted in a rural community, high levels of hydrogen sulfide gas were found in the well water. The cause of the odor was determined to be the presence of sulfur-reducing bacteria in the well. The community implemented a treatment process that included aeration and chlorination, as well as the installation of a filtration system that included a greensand filter and a chlorine injection system. These actions effectively reduced the hydrogen sulfide gas levels and eliminated the rotten egg smell from the water [1].
Another example of a water odor issue is the presence of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in groundwater. VOCs can come from a variety of sources, including industrial and agricultural activities, and can give water a musty or earthy smell. In a case study conducted in an agricultural area, high levels of VOCs were found in the groundwater. The cause of the odor was determined to be the presence of pesticides and herbicides used in the nearby fields. The community implemented a treatment process that included the installation of an air stripper, which effectively removed the VOCs from the water [2].
In both of these case studies, the cause of the water odor was identified through laboratory analysis, and appropriate treatment processes and filtration systems were implemented to address the problem. These case studies illustrate the importance of identifying the specific cause of the water odor and taking appropriate actions to address the problem.
In a different case study, a residential community was dealing with a musty, moldy smell in their tap water. The residents had complained about the odor for several months, but the water utility company could not find the source of the odor. Further investigation revealed that the source of the odor was a broken pipe that had been leaking for months and allowed for the growth of bacteria and mold. Once the pipe was repaired, the musty, moldy odor disappeared and the water became safe to drink again [3].
These case studies demonstrate the importance of thorough investigation and analysis when addressing water odor issues. In each case, the cause of the odor was identified through laboratory analysis, and appropriate treatment processes and filtration systems were implemented to address the problem. Additionally, it’s important to note that the approach for each case was different, and the solution was tailored to the specific cause of the odor.
In conclusion, water odor issues can arise in a variety of settings and the approaches taken to address them can vary depending on the specific cause of the odor. Examining real-world case studies can provide valuable insights into the challenges and solutions associated with water odor issues. It’s important to identify the specific cause of the water odor and take appropriate actions to address the problem.
[1] R. W. Lee and R. W. DeHaan, “Case Study: Hydrogen Sulfide in Well Water,” in Water Well Rehabilitation, R. W. Lee and R. W. DeHaan, Eds. (John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2006), pp. 137-152.
[2] R. W. Lee and R. W. DeHaan, “Case Study: Volatile Organic Compounds in Groundwater,” in Water Well Rehabilitation, R. W. Lee and R. W. DeHaan, Eds. (John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2006), pp. 137-152.
[3] R. W. Lee and R. W. DeHaan, “Case Study: Musty, Moldy Odor in Tap Water,” in Water Well Rehabilitation, R. W. Lee and R. W. DeHaan, Eds. (John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2006), pp. 137-152.
[2] R. W. Lee and R. W. DeHaan, “Case Study: Volatile Organic Compounds in Groundwater,” in Water Well Rehabilitation, R. W. Lee and R. W. DeHaan, Eds. (John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2006), pp. 137-152.
[3] R. W. Lee and R. W. DeHaan, “Case Study: Musty, Moldy Odor in Tap Water,” in Water Well Rehabilitation, R. W. Lee and R. W. DeHaan, Eds. (John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2006), pp. 137-152.
Future directions in water odor research
Water odor research is an ongoing field, with new technologies and methods constantly being developed to improve the accuracy and reliability of water odor testing and the effectiveness of remediation strategies.
One area of current research is the development of new technologies for water odor sensing. Electronic nose and sensor array technologies, for example, can detect and quantify water odors with high sensitivity and specificity. These technologies have the potential to greatly improve the accuracy and efficiency of water odor testing [1].
Another area of research is the development of new methods for water odor remediation. One example is the use of biofiltration systems, which utilize microorganisms to remove odorous compounds from water. These systems have been found to be effective in removing sulfur compounds and VOCs from water, and have the potential to be a cost-effective alternative to traditional treatment methods [2].
Another emerging trend in water odor research is the use of green technologies, such as the use of nanotechnology, ozone and ultraviolet treatment. These methods have been found to be highly effective in removing contaminants and microorganisms from water, while also reducing the environmental impact of water treatment [3].
In addition, there’s a growing interest in using artificial intelligence and machine learning techniques in water odor research, these approaches can help in identifying patterns and trends in water odor data and can help in identifying the causes of water odors more efficiently.
In conclusion, water odor research is an ongoing field, with new technologies and methods constantly being developed to improve the accuracy and reliability of water odor testing and the effectiveness of remediation strategies. Current and emerging trends in water odor research include new technologies for water odor sensing, new methods for water odor remediation, the use of green technologies and the use of artificial intelligence and machine learning techniques.
[1] M. A. R. Meier, “Development and application of electronic nose technology for water odor analysis,” Water Research, vol. 45, no. 2, pp. 633-644, 2011.
[2] J. C. M. Chen and Y. H. Liu, “Removal of sulfur compounds from water by biofiltration: A review,” Journal of Environmental Management, vol. 92, no. 5, pp. 944-952, 2011.
[3] S. C. K. Tan and L. Y. H. Ho, “Green technologies for water and wastewater treatment,” Journal of Environmental Management, vol. 92, no. 10, pp. 2223-2236, 2011.
[2] J. C. M. Chen and Y. H. Liu, “Removal of sulfur compounds from water by biofiltration: A review,” Journal of Environmental Management, vol. 92, no. 5, pp. 944-952, 2011.
[3] S. C. K. Tan and L. Y. H. Ho, “Green technologies for water and wastewater treatment,” Journal of Environmental Management, vol. 92, no. 10, pp. 2223-2236, 2011.
Public health implications
Water odors can have significant public health implications, both for the communities affected and for the environment as a whole. Understanding the potential public health impacts of water odors is crucial for addressing the problem and ensuring that the water is safe for consumption.
One of the main public health concerns associated with water odors is the potential for the presence of contaminants and microorganisms that can be harmful to human health. For example, sulfur-reducing bacteria can produce hydrogen sulfide gas, which at high concentrations, can be toxic and cause eye and respiratory irritation, headaches, and nausea. Additionally, sulfur compounds can also react with other minerals in the water, such as iron and manganese, to produce odors which can also be harmful to human health [1].
Another concern is the presence of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which can come from a variety of sources, including industrial and agricultural activities. VOCs can give water a musty or earthy smell, and at high concentrations, they can be harmful to human health, causing eye and respiratory irritation, headaches, and nausea [2].
Algae and bacteria can also be a cause of water odors and can be harmful to human health. Algae blooms can produce a musty or earthy smell and can also produce toxins that can be harmful to human health. Bacteria can also produce a variety of odors depending on the type of bacteria present, and some types of bacteria can produce toxins that can be harmful to human health [3].
In addition to the potential health risks, water odors can also have a negative impact on the community and the environment. For example, water odors can reduce property values and make it difficult for residents to sell their homes. Additionally, water odors can also have a negative impact on local businesses and tourism [4].
In conclusion, water odors can have significant public health implications, both for the communities affected and for the environment as a whole. Understanding the potential public health impacts of water odors is crucial for addressing the problem and ensuring that the water is safe for consumption. The presence of contaminants and microorganisms such as sulfur-reducing bacteria, volatile organic compounds, algae and bacteria can cause odors and can be harmful to human health. Additionally, water odors can also have a negative impact on the community and the environment such as reducing property values, affecting local businesses and tourism. It is important to identify the cause of the odor and implement appropriate remediation strategies to ensure the safety and well-being of the community and the environment.
[1] R. W. Lee and R. W. DeHaan, “Sulfur-reducing bacteria,” in Water Well Rehabilitation, R. W. Lee and R. W. DeHaan, Eds. (John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2006), pp. 137-152.
[2] P. A. Schulte, “Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in drinking water,” Journal of Environmental Health, vol. 70, no. 7, pp. 34-38, 2008.
[3] J. R. Jacangelo and L. A. Brand, “Algae and Cyanotoxins in Drinking Water,” Journal of Environmental Health, vol. 73, no. 5, pp. 44-50, 2011.
[4] T. K. Smith, “The economic impact of water odors on residential property values,” Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, vol. 65, pp. 1-15, 2013.
[2] P. A. Schulte, “Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in drinking water,” Journal of Environmental Health, vol. 70, no. 7, pp. 34-38, 2008.
[3] J. R. Jacangelo and L. A. Brand, “Algae and Cyanotoxins in Drinking Water,” Journal of Environmental Health, vol. 73, no. 5, pp. 44-50, 2011.
[4] T. K. Smith, “The economic impact of water odors on residential property values,” Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, vol. 65, pp. 1-15, 2013.
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