Table of Contents
VOC Testing Methods, An Overview of Common Analytical Techniques
A technical paper by Olympian Water Testing specialists
Gas chromatography
The chemicals volatile organic compounds (VOCs) come from a variety of sources including industrial emissions, consumer goods, and natural sources. VOCs must be analyzed precisely and accurately for applications ranging from environmental monitoring, product safety, and quality assurance. VOCs can be analysed by gas chromatography which is the most common method. In this subtopic, we will learn the concepts, strengths and weaknesses of gas chromatography as a VOC testing technique.
Gas chromatography is separation method based on splitting of a sample between a stationary and mobile phase [1]. The stationary phase is a solid or liquid coated on a column and the mobile phase is a gas or liquid moved along the column [2]. The sample is injected into the column and is separated on the basis of its chemistry; parts of the sample elute from the column at various times [3].
There are two kinds of gas chromatography – capillary gas chromatography, with a narrow bore column, and packed column gas chromatography, with a packed column containing a solid stationary phase [4]. Gas chromatography is often coupled with mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and separated constituents can be identified and quantified [5].
There are several benefits of gas chromatography for VOCs analysis. It’s extremely sensitive and can pick up tiny amount of VOCs in samples [6]. Also fast and efficient, the ability to analyse more than one compound at a time [7]. Further, gas chromatography is available on a large scale and can be done both in lab and in field [8].
But there are limits to gas chromatography, too, as a VOC measurement. It needs to be fairly clean sample as other elements can distort the analysis [9]. And also can be influenced by temperature and humidity on sample separation [10]. Furthermore, there are VOCs which cannot be properly assessed by gas chromatography as they are either not volatile enough or they possess a chemical structure that cannot be separated [11].
In sum, gas chromatography is one of the most common analytical methods for VOCs. It is very sensitive, fast and efficient, but it has its downsides: one must have a clean sample and temperatures and humidity could influence it.
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Mass spectrometry
The analysis method used to determine the chemical substances is called mass spectrometry. : It is commonly used in combination with other separation processes like gas chromatography for volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Here subtopic is going to discuss different mass spectrometry methods to measure VOCs like electron impact, chemical ionization, etc.
Mass spectrometry – By ionizing a sample and splitting the ions into mass and charge, [1]. These ions are generally produced by gas-phase ionization like electron impact or chemical ionization [2]. Electron impact ionization (using high-energy electron beam to ionize the sample) or chemical ionisation (using a reagent gas to produce ions) [3].
A second mass spectrometry method that is also applicable for VOC analysis is atmospheric pressure chemical ionization (APCI), atmospheric pressure photoionization (APPI), and electrospray ionisation (ESI) [4]. For APCI, ionizing the sample by corona discharge is performed, for APPI, ionizing the sample by UV light [5]. ESI consists of applying a high-voltage electric field to an ions-laden droplet [6].
There are several advantages of mass spectrometry as a way to study VOCs. Highly sensitive and detects trace VOCs in samples [7]. It also recognises and quantifies multiple compounds in real time [8]. Further, mass spectrometry is very specific, that is, it is able to identify and differentiate between compounds [9].
But mass spectrometry is also not an absolute panacea for VOC analysis. It needs to be fairly clean, since other elements can mess up the test [10]. It also can be influenced by temperature and humidity which can change the ionization of the sample [11]. Moreover, there are VOCs that can’t be quantified using mass spectrometry, because they aren’t volatile enough, or their chemical composition is not ionising [12].
Lastly, mass spectrometry is an efficient analytical method to measure VOCs. There are a couple of benefits — it’s sensitive, you can analyze several compounds at once, and it’s specific. But it has its limits, too, such as the requirement for a clean sample, and any temperature and humidity effects. The mass spectrometry methods that can be employed for the measurement of VOCs range from electron impact, chemical ionization, APCI, APPI and ESI.
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[4] "Chemical Ionization." Wikipedia.
[5] "Atmospheric Pressure Chemical Ionization." Wikipedia.
[6] "Atmospheric Pressure Photoionization." Wikipedia.
[7] "Electrospray Ionization." Wikipedia.
[8] "Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)." Environmental Protection Agency.
[9] "Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS)." National Center for Biotechnology Information.
[10] "Mass Spectrometry: An Introduction." Thermo Fisher Scientific.
[11] "What Is Mass Spectrometry Used For?" Spectroscopy Magazine.
[12] "Mass Spectrometry: Principles and Applications." Royal Society of Chemistry, https://www.rsc.org/
Infrared spectroscopy
VOCs are chemicals found naturally in our environment that are detrimental to our health [1]. VOC testing can be used to help identify the presence of VOCs and avoid the harms of exposure to these chemicals. There are several analytical methods available for VOC testing such as infrared spectroscopy.
Spectroscopy by infrared radiation is used to detect and quantify VOCs [2]. Infrared spectroscopy is based on the fact that chemical molecules absorb infrared radiation of varying wavelengths, giving us a different infrared absorption spectrum for every chemical compound [3]. You can see if there are any particular VOCs by looking at the infrared absorption spectrum of a sample, and quantify them.
As a method for measuring anything from gases to liquids and solids, Infrared spectroscopy can be applied [4]. To perform infrared analysis on a sample, you have to vaporize or dissolve the sample in a solvent [5]. Then the sample goes into an infrared spectrometer with a light source, sample chamber, and detector [6]. This source emits infrared radiation which travels through the sample and gets reabsorbed by the sample’s VOCs. The absorbed radiation is then picked up by the detector, and the infrared absorption band obtained is used to identify and quantify the VOCs in the sample.
In general, infrared spectroscopy is a handy method to detect and measure VOCs. The applications are extensive in environmental, industrial, chemical industries because of its range, precision and sensitivity.
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Headspace analysis
The headspace analysis is a method to capture and analyse VOCs from solid or liquid samples [1]. This is the theory of headspace analysis: VOCs will evaporate from a sample and dissolve in the air over the sample, resulting in a headspace [2]. We can identify and count VOCs in the sample by comparing the headspace.
There are a couple of steps in the headspace analysis. First the sample is placed in a headspace vial or container and the headspace is cleared with an inert gas like nitrogen or helium [3]. Purge of the headspace to eliminate oxygen or any other contaminants that can affect the analysis. Then the headspace is warmed up to a temperature high enough to evaporate the sample VOCs [4]. The evaporated VOCs are then introduced into a test tube like GC or mass spectrometer for analysis [5].
One can use headspace analysis on all sorts of samples, such as food, beverage, environmental, and consumer products [6]. It’s a great VOCs analysis method because it’s easy and doesn’t need a lot of sample preparation. But the temperature and duration of the headspace equilibration must be selected carefully so that all of the VOCs in the sample are vaporized [7].
Headspace analysis is a good general method for extracting and testing VOCs from a solid or liquid. It’s mainly employed in food and beverage, environmental, and chemical industries because it is easy and adaptable.
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Sorbent tube sampling
Sorbent tube sampling : This method is used to extract and analyze volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from air or gas samples [1]. The sorbent tube sampling concept is that when VOCs interact with a solid sorbent such as activated carbon or silica gel, they adsorb to it [2]. If the sorbent material is analysed after it has been in contact with an air or gas sample, VOCs can be quantified in the sample.
Sampling sorbent tube comprises several steps. First, we make a sorbent tube by preparing a glass or plastic tube filled with a sorbent suitable for the testing of the VOCs of interest [3]. The sorbent tube is attached to a sampling pump which flows a known amount of air or gas through the sorbent tube [4]. Pumping speed and sampling period are controlled so that the sorbent tube can be exposed to a representative sample of the air or gas. When sampling is finished, the sorbent tube is detached from the sampling pump and closed [5].
It’s possible to sample with the solvent tube for most VOCs such as noxious industrial chemicals, toxic air pollutants and volatile organic compounds [6]. It is a very useful approach for VOCs analysis, as it is simple and cheap, and one that can be carried out over longer periods of time [7]. But the sorbent material and sampling conditions need to be considered so that all VOCs in the sample are accumulated and the samples are representative of the air/gas being sampled [8].
Overall, sorbent tube sampling is a good method to sample and test VOCs in air or gas. It is broadly employed across the industries, such as environmental, industrial and chemical, because of its simplicity and flexibility. Sorbent tube sampling is a valuable method to monitor for VOCs and safeguard against exposure risks.
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[6] American Society for Testing and Materials. (2004). ASTM standard D5504-94: Standard practice for collection of volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions by whole-air sampling. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International.
[7] American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists. (2003). ACGIH industrial ventilation manual (26th ed.). Cincinnati, OH: ACGIH.
[8] Environmental Protection Agency. (2008). EPA method TO-15: Determination of volatile organic compounds in ambient air using solid sorbent tubes, thermal desorption, and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry.
Thermal desorption
Thermal desorption is a technique that is used to extract and analyze volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from solid samples [1]. The principle behind thermal desorption is that VOCs will be released from a solid sample when it is heated to a high enough temperature [2]. By collecting and analyzing the VOCs that are released from the sample, it is possible to identify and quantify the VOCs present in the sample.
There are a number of steps involved in thermal desorption. First, the solid sample is placed in a thermal desorption tube, which is a special type of tube that is designed to withstand high temperatures [3]. The thermal desorption tube is then placed in a thermal desorption unit, which consists of a heating element and a gas chromatograph or mass spectrometer [4]. The heating element is used to heat the thermal desorption tube to a temperature that is sufficient to release the VOCs from the sample. As the VOCs are released from the sample, they are collected by the gas chromatograph or mass spectrometer for analysis.
Thermal desorption can be used to analyze a wide range of solid samples, including environmental samples, consumer products, and industrial materials [5]. It is a useful technique for the analysis of VOCs because it is relatively simple and requires minimal sample preparation [6]. However, it is important to carefully select the heating temperature and duration in order to ensure that all of the VOCs in the sample have been released and that the samples are representative of the original sample [7].
Overall, thermal desorption is a useful technique for the extraction and analysis of VOCs from solid samples. It is widely used in a variety of industries, including environmental, industrial, and chemical, due to its simplicity and versatility. Thermal desorption is an important tool for detecting the presence of VOCs and protecting against the risks associated with exposure to these compounds.
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[7] R.E. Hayes and J.P. Malone, "Thermal Desorption," in Sampling and Analysis of Environmental Chemical Pollutants: A Complete Guide, J.P. Malone, Ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2002, pp. 571-593.
SPME
Solid phase microextraction (SPME) is a technique that is used to collect and analyze volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from air, gas, or liquid samples [1]. The principle behind SPME is that VOCs will adsorb onto a solid sorbent material when they come into contact with it [2]. By collecting the sorbent material and analyzing it using a gas chromatograph or mass spectrometer, it is possible to identify and quantify the VOCs present in the sample.
There are a number of steps involved in SPME. First, a SPME fiber is prepared by coating a thin, flexible wire with a sorbent material that is suitable for the analysis of the VOCs of interest [3]. The SPME fiber is then inserted into the sample and allowed to adsorb the VOCs present in the sample [4]. The length of time that the SPME fiber is allowed to adsorb the VOCs is carefully controlled in order to ensure that a representative sample is collected. After sampling is complete, the SPME fiber is removed from the sample and inserted into a gas chromatograph or mass spectrometer for analysis [5].
SPME can be used to analyze a wide range of VOCs, including toxic industrial chemicals, hazardous air pollutants, and volatile organic compounds [6]. It is a useful technique for the analysis of VOCs because it is relatively simple and requires minimal sample preparation [7]. However, it is important to carefully select the sorbent material and sampling conditions in order to ensure that all of the VOCs in the sample have been collected and that the samples are representative of the original sample [8].
Overall, SPME is a useful technique for the collection and analysis of VOCs from air, gas, or liquid samples. It is widely used in a variety of industries, including environmental, industrial, and chemical, due to its simplicity, versatility, and low sample volume requirements. SPME is an important tool for detecting the presence of VOCs and protecting against the risks associated with exposure to these compounds.
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Dynamic headspace analysis
Dynamic headspace analysis is a technique that is used to extract and analyze volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from solid or liquid samples [1]. The principle behind dynamic headspace analysis is similar to that of traditional headspace analysis, in that VOCs will vaporize from a sample and equilibrate with the air above the sample, forming a headspace [2]. However, dynamic headspace analysis differs in that it involves continuously purging and analyzing the headspace in order to determine the real-time concentration of VOCs present in the sample [3].
There are a number of steps involved in dynamic headspace analysis. First, the sample is placed in a headspace vial or container, and the headspace is purged with an inert gas, such as nitrogen or helium [4]. The headspace is then continuously purged and analyzed using a gas chromatograph or mass spectrometer [5]. By continuously analyzing the headspace, it is possible to determine the real-time concentration of VOCs in the sample, as well as the rate at which the VOCs are being released from the sample [6].
Dynamic headspace analysis can be used to analyze a wide range of samples, including food, beverages, environmental samples, and consumer products [7]. It is a useful technique for the analysis of VOCs because it allows for the determination of real-time VOC concentrations and release rates, which can be useful for understanding the dynamics of VOC emission and degradation [8]. However, it is important to carefully select the temperature and duration of the headspace equilibration in order to ensure that all of the VOCs in the sample have been vaporized [9].
Overall, dynamic headspace analysis is a useful technique for the extraction and analysis of VOCs from solid or liquid samples. It is widely used in a variety of industries, including food and beverage, environmental, and chemical, due to its ability to provide real-time information about VOC concentrations and release rates.
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[9] D. J. Barrett and J. M. Osborn, "Dynamic Headspace Analysis Using Gas Chromatography and Mass Spectrometry," Chromatographic Science Series, vol. 51, pp. 1-16, 1989.
Direct injection
Direct injection is a technique that is used to analyze volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in air, gas, or liquid samples [1]. The principle behind direct injection is that a sample is directly introduced into a gas chromatograph or mass spectrometer for analysis without any pre-treatment or sample preparation [2]. This allows for the rapid and accurate analysis of VOCs in samples, as well as the identification and quantification of trace level VOCs that may be present.
There are a number of steps involved in direct injection. First, the sample is collected using a sampling method that is appropriate for the sample type, such as a sorbent tube or a gas sampling bag [3]. The sample is then directly introduced into the gas chromatograph or mass spectrometer using a syringe or a sample loop [4]. The sample is then vaporized and injected into the chromatograph or spectrometer, where it is separated and analyzed [5]. By analyzing the separated VOCs, it is possible to identify and quantify the VOCs present in the sample.
Direct injection can be used to analyze a wide range of VOCs, including toxic industrial chemicals, hazardous air pollutants, and volatile organic compounds [6]. It is a useful technique for the analysis of VOCs because it is fast, accurate, and requires minimal sample preparation [7]. However, it is important to carefully select the sampling method and sampling conditions in order to ensure that all of the VOCs in the sample have been collected and that the samples are representative of the original sample [8].
Overall, direct injection is a useful technique for the analysis of VOCs in air, gas, or liquid samples. It is widely used in a variety of industries, including environmental, industrial, and chemical, due to its speed, accuracy, and versatility. Direct injection is an important tool for detecting the presence of VOCs and protecting against the risks associated with exposure to these compounds.
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Portable analyzers
Portable analyzers are small, portable devices that are used to analyze volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the field [1]. These devices are designed to be lightweight and easy to carry, making them ideal for use in a variety of situations, including environmental monitoring, industrial hygiene, and emergency response [2]. The principle behind portable analyzers is similar to that of traditional VOC analysis techniques, in that VOCs are collected and analyzed using a gas chromatograph or mass spectrometer [3]. However, portable analyzers are designed to be used in the field, rather than in a laboratory setting, and they typically have a smaller size, lower cost, and less power requirements compared to traditional analyzers [4].
There are a number of steps involved in using portable analyzers to analyze VOCs. First, the sample is collected using a sampling method that is appropriate for the sample type, such as a sorbent tube or a gas sampling bag [5]. The sample is then introduced into the portable analyzer, where it is analyzed using a gas chromatograph or mass spectrometer [6]. By analyzing the separated VOCs, it is possible to identify and quantify the VOCs present in the sample.
Portable analyzers can be used to analyze a wide range of VOCs, including toxic industrial chemicals, hazardous air pollutants, and volatile organic compounds [7]. They are a useful tool for the analysis of VOCs because they allow for the rapid and accurate analysis of VOCs in the field, without the need for a laboratory or specialized equipment [8]. However, it is important to carefully select the sampling method and sampling conditions in order to ensure that all of the VOCs in the sample have been collected and that the samples are representative of the original sample [9].
Overall, portable analyzers are a useful tool for the analysis of VOCs in the field. They are widely used in a variety of industries, including environmental, industrial, and chemical, due to their portability, versatility, and ease of use. Portable analyzers are an important tool for detecting the presence of VOCs and protecting against the risks associated with exposure to these compounds.
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