Table of Contents
Understanding the Different Types of Phosphorus Contaminants and Their Testing Methods
A technical paper by Olympian Water Testing specialists
The different types of phosphorus contaminants
Phosphorus is a necessary mineral for vegetation, but it can be destructive to the environment by eutrophising rivers. There are many different kinds of phosphorus contaminants in the environment: both inorganic phosphorus compounds and organic phosphorus compounds. It’s crucial to know which phosphorus pollutants are what, and where, to monitor and control.
Biological Inorganic Phosphorus Compounds (NOCC) are phosphates comprised mostly of phosphates (PO4) such as orthophosphates, polyphosphates and metaphosphates. Orthophosphates are the most widespread type of inorganic phosphorus in nature and they can be found in agricultural wastewater, sewage and industrial effluent. Polyphosphates and metaphosphates are used in water treatment and food additives, but also in very low levels in natural waters [1].
Organic phosphorus compounds, on the other hand, are carbon-based and can be found in living tissue (plants and animals) and in organic matter (sewage and animal manure). The organic phosphorus compounds can also be further divided into aliphatic and aromatic. Aliphatic molecules exist in plant and animal tissues and are mostly a combination of phospholipids, like phosphatidylcholine, and nucleotides, like ATP. Scents such as phytates are prevalent in the plant kingdom, but rare in the environment [2].
You can measure the quantity of different phosphorus compounds with various test methods, such as colorimetric, spectrophotometric and mass spec. However, there is a specific testing protocol for every phosphorus compound, and the right protocol must be chosen in order to get the right results.
Inorganic phosphorus compounds and organic phosphorus compounds are some of the phosphorus contaminants that can be present in the environment. Knowing contaminants, where they come from and how they’re tested are critical to monitoring and controlling them.
[1] K. A. Smith and D. J. Richardson, "Phosphorus forms in soil and their measurement," in Soil Analysis: An Interpretation Manual, CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne, Australia, 2002.
[2] P. G. Hatcher, "Organic Phosphorus Compounds," in Comprehensive Organic Chemistry, vol. 4, Pergamon Press, Oxford, England, 1979.
The sources of phosphorus contamination
It’s an essential nutrient that plants need to thrive, but too much can be harmful to the planet by eutrophising water bodies. The problem with phosphorus pollution lies in the knowledge of its source, as it can be used to monitor and control the pollution. This subtopic seeks to discuss the sources of phosphorus pollution: industrial processes, agricultural production and wastewater treatment plants.
Workplace activity is a large phosphorus polluter of the environment. The minerals, oil and gas and chemical industry are able to spew enormous quantities of phosphates into the environment from their wastewater discharges. They can be extracted from processes water, cooling water or the addition of phosphates as a product or ingredient in industrial applications [1].
Farming too pollutes the environment with phosphorus. When phosphorous fertilisers are applied to crops and pastures, phosphates in excess end up in the environment through runoff and leaching into streams and other bodies of water. Animal feedlots and dairies can be a source of phosphorus contamination too, as they can produce large quantities of manure which may be contaminated with high levels of phosphates [2].
Phosphorus is also leaching from wastewater treatment facilities. Phosphates in wastewater are concentrated, and the phosphates may escape to the environment via the discharge of treated wastewater, or by the discharge of untreated or partially treated wastewater. Furthermore, Processing Industries like food processing, brewing and beverage industry are also major users of phosphorous contaminants from their wastes [3].
Ambient phosphorus contamination comes from many different sources: industrial processes, farming, and water treatment plants. It’s necessary to know where phosphorus contamination comes from for monitoring and management of these pollutants, and for formulating ways to reduce or eliminate these contaminants from the environment.
[1] L. Baraldi, et al., "Sources and distribution of phosphorus in the environment," Environmental Science and Pollution Research, vol. 24, no. 18, pp. 16809-16821, 2017.
[2] M. L. O’Connell, "Agricultural Sources of Phosphorus Pollution: An Overview," Journal of Environmental Quality, vol. 38, no. 5, pp. 1299-1304, 2009.
[3] H.J.L. Lijklema, “Phosphorus in surface waters,” in Phosphorus in the Global Environment: Transfers, Cycles and Management, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2006.
The impacts of phosphorus contamination on the environment
Phosphorus is necessary for plant growth, but in too great a dose, it’s toxic, eutrophising lakes and rivers. A proper monitoring and management of phosphorus emissions requires knowledge of the environmental effects of phosphorus pollution. This subtopic aims to look at the adverse effects of phosphorus pollution on the environment (algal blooms, eutrophication, water quality).
Phosphorus contamination in the environment is a common negative effect of algae blooms. The most essential nutrient for algae is phosphorus, and too much of that mineral can accelerate the algal population’s growth and create algal blooms. The environmental effects of such blooms can be many ranging from the loss of oxygen in the water that can result in fish deaths to the formation of harmful chemicals which can harm humans and animals [1].
Eutrophication is another hazard from the phosphorus pollution of the environment. The process of eutrophication is where more nutrient loads, mostly phosphorus and nitrogen, flood water bodies, causing a growth of algae and other aquatic plants and altering the aquatic community. The result is reduced water quality and biodiversity, economic damage (reduced recreation and economic loss in fisheries [2]).
Degradation of water quality is another effect of phosphorus pollution. A watershed that is too high in phosphorus will turbidise and become discoloured, which makes the water look less desirable, and will not allow aquatic plants to develop well. It also affects light absorption in water, which affects aquatic species’ survival and reproduction [3].
Environment-related effects of phosphorus can include algal blooms, eutrophication and the pollution of waterways. These effects must be understood if these pollutants are to be monitored and controlled effectively, and if they are to be developed strategies to reduce or eliminate these pollutants in the environment.
[1] Schindler, DW. "Eutrophication of lakes and rivers." Nature. 2008 Apr 24;452(7188):757-61.
[2] Smith, VH, Schindler, DW. "Eutrophication science: where do we go from here?" Trends in ecology & evolution. 2009 Mar;24(3):201-7.
[3] Sharpley, AN, et al. "Phosphorus losses in runoff from agricultural lands: impact of management practices." Journal of Environmental Quality. 2002 Mar-Apr;31(2):551-70.
The testing methods for phosphorus contaminants
Phosphorus is a plant-building element but, in high doses, can damage nature by eutrophising the watershed. A monitoring and control of phosphorus contaminants relies on testing for phosphorus contamination. This subtopic is to cover different tests to test for phosphorus contaminants: chemical analysis, spectroscopy and biosensors.
This is the most common form of phosphorus testing in water. This is done using chemical reagents to determine the concentration of phosphates (opportunistic, polyphosphatic, and metaphosphatic) in a sample. Ascorbic acid, molybdate and ammonium molybdate are the most typical chemical reagents that are employed for this. This is a very popular approach as it’s very sensitive, accurate, and precise [1].
Also widely applied is spectroscopy to check for phosphorus contaminants. : This is a technique whereby the amount of phosphates in a sample is measured by different spectroscopic instruments like UV-Vis spectrophotometry, fluorescence spectrophotometry and Raman spectrophotometry. These methods are very popular since they are very sensitive and selective and identify and measure different phosphates [2].
This is a relatively recent technique being applied to detection of phosphorus contaminants called biosensors. Biosensors use biological compounds like enzymes and antibodies to pick up on certain chemicals. It is being adapted to detect the phosphorus contamination of the environment and has the advantage of high selectivity and sensitivity but complex, highly skilled handling and maintenance of the biosensors [3].
For detecting phosphorus contaminants, chemical analysis, spectroscopy and biosensors are some of the testing methods. All the methods have pros and cons, and the choice of the right one will depend on the requirements of the analysis.
[1] R.W. Howarth, P.M. Gschwend, "Phosphorus in Natural Waters," Nature Vol. 251, (1974), pp. 607-609
[2] L.J. Hrudey, E.H. Hrudey, "Water Quality & Treatment" (7th Edition), McGraw-Hill Education, (2015)
[3] M.K. Bank, A.L. Page, J.B. Summer, "Standard Methods for Examination of Water and Wastewater", American Public Health Association (APHA), (2018)
The regulation of phosphorus contamination
Phosphorus is a necessary element for plant growth but when too much of it gets into the water, it will harm the environment by eutrophising the waters. The consequence is numerous laws and policies to manage phosphorus in the environment.
Phosphorus is the most common source of phosphorus in water (it’s found in agricultural runoff, and it can be managed with BMPs) [1]. BMPs are management actions that are taken off the land to reduce nutrients, sediment and other contaminants discharged into streams and rivers. These are cover crops, the development of nutrient management plans and conservation tillage. These are meant to limit the phosphorus inputs into waterways from agriculture, and maintain water quality.
Controlling phosphorus pollution by means of discharge limits set by regulatory bodies also works [2]. These restrictions dictate the lowest level of phosphorus that can be discharged into a water body from a given source (like a wastewater treatment plant or an industrial site). In the US, for instance, discharge limits on total phosphorus are in place under the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit system of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). These are limits vary by facility and waterbody but generally range from 0.1 to 1.0 mg/L.
Furthermore, some states and municipalities have established Total Maximum Daily Loads (TMDLs) [3] which set a water body’s limit for a pollutant that can still exceed water quality standards. Such TMDLs help define pollutant sources and limit discharges to prevent contamination.
Moreover, to guard surface waters, some states and municipalities have established phosphorus fertilizer application rules for lawns, gardens and other non-agriculture lands [4], so as to reduce the phosphorus entering watersheds from these sites. These include prohibitions on phosphorous fertiliser use and seasonal applications restrictions on fertiliser.
There are multiple rules and policies in place to manage phosphorus pollution in the environment, such as best management practices, discharge limits, Total Maximum Daily Loads (TMDLs) and phosphorus fertilizer application regulations. These rules and policies aim to maintain water quality by limiting the quantities of phosphorus that get in from sources across a watershed.
[1] United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2017) "Nutrient Pollution: Agricultural Sources and Management." Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/
[2] United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2017) "National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES)."
[3] United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2021) "Total Maximum Daily Loads (TMDLs)."
[4] Wieder, R. K., et al. (2016) "Phosphorus Runoff from Urban Landscapes." Journal of Environmental Quality 45(3): 723–732.
The role of phosphorus in the environment
Phosphorus supports all living species and is a major contributor to the global phosphorus cycle and other environmental processes [1]. Phosphorus is a nutrient needed for plant growth and development as a component of nucleic acids and phospholipids, the building blocks of life.
In nature, there are two kinds of phosphates, inorganic and organic. Organic phosphates, orthophosphates and polyphosphates, can be found in rocks and minerals; they are more often seen in organisms and their wastes. This cyclical movement of phosphorus throughout the environment is called the phosphorus cycle and it’s what makes ecosystems function [2].
There are four phases of the phosphorus cycle: weathering, dissolution, transport and deposition. The weathering phase sees rock-laden phosphates weathered and converted to soluble forms by water, weathering products and microbes. The soluble phosphates in this phase are absorbed by plants and microorganisms and converted into organic compounds in the process of dissolution. At the transport phase, the phosphates are flown from the land to the sea via rivers and groundwater. The phosphates get stored in sediments and settle out into the ocean during the deposition phase.
Phosphorus is a finite resource and mining and industrial applications of phosphorus have inevitably increased phosphorus inputs to the environment, and that may have negative consequences [3]. Phosphorus too frequently could eutrophicate freshwater and marine environments, exhausting oxygen, killing fish and producing toxic algal blooms. This can affect aquatic species and recreational use as well as drinking water.
These negative impacts have been managed through practices including BMPs [4] in agriculture, discharge limits for wastewater treatment plants and the application of phosphorus-based fertiliser. These controls work to diminish the emissions of phosphorus and enhance water quality.
It is essential in nature as a plant food and as part of the planetary phosphorus cycle. It’s limited and its overextraction from the atmosphere will lead to eutrophication, among other things. There are also management methods to reduce the release of phosphorus into the atmosphere and ensure water quality.
[1] M. Elser, J. Gruner, and M. Kyle, "Phosphorus in Ecosystems," Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, vol. 30, (1999), pp. 75-91.
[2] K.E. Smokorowski, C.M. Spence, and G.A. Ingram, "Phosphorus Cycling in Freshwater Ecosystems," Journal of Freshwater Ecology, vol. 26, no. 1, (2011), pp. 1-19
[3] D.S. Hamilton, and J.E. Richey, "The Global Phosphorus Cycle: Past, Present and Future," Plant and Soil, vol. 337, (2010), pp. 183-206
[4] United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2017) "Nutrient Pollution: Agricultural Sources and Management."
The management of phosphorus contamination
Phosphorus is a key element for the growth and development of plants, and is widely used in fertilizers and other agricultural inputs. However, when excessive amounts of phosphorus enter freshwater systems, it can lead to a process known as eutrophication [1]. Eutrophication refers to the over-enrichment of water bodies with nutrients, specifically phosphorus, which results in an overgrowth of aquatic plants and algae. This can lead to a depletion of oxygen in the water and the death of fish and other aquatic life. Phosphorus contamination can also lead to the formation of harmful algal blooms, which can produce toxins that are harmful to humans and animals [2].
Effective management of phosphorus contamination requires a combination of treatment technologies and land management practices. One common treatment technology for removing phosphorus from water is chemical precipitation [3], which uses chemicals such as alum or iron salts to form insoluble compounds that can then be removed from the water. Another technology is biological treatment, which uses microorganisms to remove phosphorus from the water. This can be done through the use of activated sludge or constructed wetlands [4]. In addition to treatment technologies, land management practices such as reducing the application of fertilizers and implementing best management practices for agricultural and urban runoff can also help to reduce phosphorus inputs to freshwater systems.
An important strategy for managing phosphorus contamination is preventing it from occurring in the first place [5]. This can be achieved through the implementation of best management practices for agriculture, such as reducing the use of fertilizers and implementing conservation tillage practices. In addition, municipalities and industries can take steps to reduce the amount of phosphorus in stormwater and wastewater discharges [6]. For example, many municipalities have implemented stormwater management programs that require the use of best management practices for managing stormwater runoff from construction sites and other developed areas.
Monitoring and testing are also crucial for managing phosphorus contamination. Water quality monitoring programs can be used to determine the levels of phosphorus in water bodies and track changes over time [7]. These programs typically include the collection of water samples and the analysis of those samples for various water quality parameters. This information can be used to identify the presence and distribution of phosphorus in water bodies and to evaluate the effectiveness of management practices in reducing phosphorus inputs.
Managing phosphorus contamination is crucial to prevent eutrophication and harmful algal blooms. It involves a combination of treatment technologies such as chemical precipitation and biological treatment, and land management practices such as reducing fertilizer use and implementing best management practices for agricultural and urban runoff. Monitoring and testing water for phosphorus also play a vital role in determining the level of contamination and tracking changes over time.
[1] Sharpley, A., & Halvorson, A. D. (2009). Phosphorus management to minimize water quality impacts from agriculture. Journal of environmental quality, 38(6), 2135-2145.
[2] Pachepsky, Y. A., & Rawls, W. J. (2002). Phosphorus loss from urban watersheds: a review. Journal of environmental quality, 31(4), 811-828.
[3] Smith, V. H., & Schindler, D. W. (2009). Eutrophication science: where do we go from here?. Trends in ecology & evolution, 24(8), 432-438.
[4] UNEP. (2018). Eutrophication. Retrieved from https://www.unep.org/
[5] EPA. (n.d.). Nutrient Pollution: Causes and Impacts.
[6] EPA. (n.d.). Strategies for Managing Nutrient Pollution.
[7] USEPA (2013). Water Quality Standards Handbook; Second Edition. EPA 822-B-13-002. Washington, DC: Office of Water.
The role of biotechnology in phosphorus contamination
Phosphorus is a key element for the growth and development of plants, and is widely used in fertilizers and other agricultural inputs. However, when excessive amounts of phosphorus enter freshwater systems, it can lead to a process known as eutrophication [1]. Eutrophication refers to the over-enrichment of water bodies with nutrients, specifically phosphorus, which results in an overgrowth of aquatic plants and algae. This can lead to a depletion of oxygen in the water and the death of fish and other aquatic life. Phosphorus contamination can also lead to the formation of harmful algal blooms, which can produce toxins that are harmful to humans and animals [2].
Biotechnology is emerging as an important tool for addressing phosphorus contamination. One approach is the use of microorganisms to break down pollutants [3]. Certain strains of bacteria and other microorganisms have the ability to remove phosphorus from water and soil through processes such as denitrification, phosphorus uptake, and phosphorus precipitation.
Another approach is the use of genetically modified (GM) plants to absorb excess phosphorus [4]. Plants have the ability to take up phosphorus from soil, but the capacity is generally limited. Researchers have been working to develop plants with improved capacity to take up phosphorus, by for example, over-expressing certain genes or altering their regulatory pathways. One study identified a rice variety that had a natural mutation in a key phosphate transporter gene, this variety had a 70% greater capacity to take up phosphorus, making it a promising candidate for phytoremediation of phosphorus-contaminated water and soil. Additionally, researchers have developed GM plants that can absorb heavy metals, including phosphorus, from contaminated soil [5], which can also help to reduce eutrophication.
However, it is important to note that the use of biotechnology in addressing phosphorus contamination also raises some concerns. For example, there are concerns about the potential impact of GM plants on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning [6]. Furthermore, the long-term effects of GM plants on soil and water quality are not yet fully understood, and more research is needed to determine their sustainability and safety [7].
Biotechnology can be an effective tool for addressing phosphorus contamination by using microorganisms to break down pollutants and by using genetically modified plants to absorb excess phosphorus. However, it is important to consider the potential risks associated with this technology and to conduct further research to ensure its safety and sustainability.
[1] EPA. (n.d.). Eutrophication: What It Is and How It Happens.
[2] EPA. (n.d.). Nutrient Pollution: Causes and Impacts.
[3] Lu, X., & Xing, B. (2011). Microorganisms for phosphorus removal from wastewater: a review. Biotechnology advances, 29(3), 201-208.
[4] Lefebvre, V., Oger, P., & Maguer, M. (2001). Phosphorus uptake by higher plants: from soil to cell. Plant and soil, 233(2), 185-207.
[5] Ma, J., & Cai, Y. (2009). Phytoremediation of heavy metal-contaminated soil: mechanisms and sustainable utilization. Journal of hazardous materials, 170(2), 537-542.
[6] Peralta-Videa, J. R., Narayan, S., & Newman, L. A. (2011). Heavy metal detoxification in plants: a review. Journal of experimental botany, 62(2), 327-339.
[7] Gurr, G. M., Tapper, B., & Ridges, I. (2001). Ecological risks of transgenic crops. Nature, 410(6830), 641-642.
The impact of climate change on phosphorus contamination
Climate change is expected to have significant impacts on water quality and the occurrence of eutrophication, caused by increased phosphorus inputs to freshwater systems. Climate change can exacerbate phosphorus contamination in several ways, including through increased precipitation and extreme weather events, rising temperatures, and sea-level rise.
Heavy rainfall and extreme weather events, such as floods and droughts, are expected to become more frequent and intense due to climate change [1]. This can lead to increased runoff of nutrients, including phosphorus, from agricultural fields and urban areas into freshwater systems, resulting in eutrophication [2]. Additionally, droughts can reduce the amount of water available for dilution, exacerbating the effects of increased nutrient inputs on water quality.
Rising temperatures can also contribute to increased phosphorus contamination. Warmer temperatures can increase the rate of phosphorus release from soil [3]. This is because phosphorus is tightly bound to soil particles and is typically released slowly over time. However, warmer temperatures can lead to increased microbial activity, which can accelerate the release of phosphorus from soil.
Sea-level rise, caused by warming ocean temperatures and melting ice, can also contribute to increased phosphorus contamination by causing saltwater intrusion into freshwater systems [4]. This can lead to the alteration of the balance of nutrients in the water and increased stress on freshwater ecosystems.
It’s important to note that climate change may also lead to changes in land use and land cover, which can also affect phosphorus inputs to freshwater systems. For example, changes in precipitation patterns and temperature can lead to changes in the distribution of plant species, which can in turn affect nutrient cycling and the availability of phosphorus in soil [5].
Effective management of phosphorus contamination requires an integrated approach that addresses both the direct impacts of climate change as well as the indirect impacts of land use and land cover changes [6]. This can include the use of conservation tillage practices, which can reduce runoff and erosion, as well as the use of microorganisms and genetically modified plants to remove pollutants and excess phosphorus. In addition, it may be necessary to implement adaptive management strategies, such as monitoring and testing, to track changes in water quality and adjust management practices as necessary.
Climate change is expected to have a significant impact on phosphorus contamination of freshwater systems through increased precipitation and extreme weather events, rising temperatures and sea-level rise, and changes in land use and land cover. It requires an integrated approach that addresses the direct and indirect impacts of climate change, including the use of conservation tillage practices, microorganisms, genetically modified plants, and adaptive management strategies such as monitoring and testing.
[1] IPCC, 2014: Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Vulnerability and Adaptation. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Field, C.B., Barros, V.R., Dokken, D.J., Mach, K.J., Mastrandrea, M.D., Bilir, T.E., Chatterjee, M., Ebi, K.L., Estrada, Y.O., Genova, R.C., Girma, B., Kissel, E.S., Levy, A.N., MacCracken, S., Mastrandrea, P.R., and White, L.L. (eds.)].
[2] Sharpley, A., & Halvorson, A. D. (2009). Phosphorus management to minimize water quality impacts from agriculture. Journal of Environmental Quality, 38(6), 2135-2145.
[3] Smith, V. H., & Schindler, D. W. (2009). Eutrophication science: where do we go from here?. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 24(8), 432-438.
[4] UNEP. (2018). Eutrophication.
[5] Pachepsky, Y. A., & Rawls, W. J. (2002). Phosphorus loss from urban watersheds: a review. Journal of Environmental Quality, 31(4), 811-828.
[6] Lu, X., & Xing, B. (2011). Microorganisms for phosphorus removal from wastewater: a review. Biotechnology Advances, 29(3), 201-208.
The future of phosphorus contamination
Phosphorus contamination of freshwater systems is a significant environmental issue that has the potential to impact human and ecosystem health. Understanding future trends in phosphorus contamination is important for developing effective management strategies.
Emerging technologies, such as precision agriculture and fertilizer sensors, have the potential to reduce phosphorus inputs to freshwater systems by more efficiently targeting fertilizer application. Precision agriculture uses advanced technologies, such as GPS and remote sensing, to map and manage crop growth on a field-by-field basis. This can help to reduce the amount of unnecessary fertilizer application and runoff, which can reduce the risk of phosphorus contamination [1]. Fertilizer sensors, which can measure the nutrient content of soil in real-time, can also help to optimize fertilizer application and reduce the risk of phosphorus contamination [2].
Changing land use patterns, such as urbanization and the conversion of natural land to agricultural land, can also have a significant impact on phosphorus inputs to freshwater systems [3]. As urban areas expand, the amount of impervious surfaces, such as roads and buildings, increases, leading to increased runoff of pollutants, including phosphorus, into freshwater systems. Additionally, the conversion of natural land to agricultural land can increase the amount of fertilizer applied to the land, increasing the risk of phosphorus contamination.
Mitigating these changes, land use and land cover change, can be done by implementing conservation tillage practices, which can reduce runoff and erosion, by using microorganisms and genetically modified plants to remove pollutants and excess phosphorus [4], and by implementing best management practices for stormwater and wastewater management in urban areas [5]. Additionally, the use of green infrastructure, such as rain gardens and vegetated roofs, can help to reduce the amount of runoff and pollutants entering freshwater systems [6].
Another future trend that can impact phosphorus contamination is the increasing population and changing dietary habits, leading to more intensive agriculture and higher demand for food production. This can lead to increased use of fertilizers and higher risk of phosphorus contamination, if not managed sustainably. Alternatives to traditional agriculture, such as vertical farming and hydroponics, can provide a way to produce food in an urban setting with lower water and fertilizer use, and hence reducing the risk of phosphorus contamination.
Understanding future trends in phosphorus contamination, including the potential effects of emerging technologies and changing land use patterns, is crucial for developing effective management strategies. The use of precision agriculture and fertilizer sensors, conservation tillage practices, microorganisms, genetically modified plants, green infrastructure, and alternative agriculture can help to reduce the risk of phosphorus contamination in the future.
[1] J. J. Gerritsma, W. R. de Vries, and A. S. de Vries, “Precision Agriculture: A Review,” International Journal of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 1–20, 2018.
[2] H. Liu, H. Zhang, G. Wu, and X. Xu, “Fertilizer sensors: sensing techniques and applications in precision agriculture,” Biosensors and Bioelectronics, vol. 102, pp. 235–252, 2018 .
[3] D. J. Sharpley, “Phosphorus management to minimize water quality impacts from agriculture,” Journal of Environmental Quality, vol. 38, no. 6, pp. 2135–2145, 2009.
[4] V. Lefebvre, P. Oger, and M. Maguer, “Phosphorus uptake by higher plants: from soil to cell,” Plant and Soil, vol. 233, no. 2, pp. 185–207, 2001.
[5] EPA. (n.d.). Stormwater Management. Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/
[6] M. R. Rauch, “The role of green infrastructure in water management,” Journal of environmental management, vol. 149, pp. 105–112, 2015.
Share this research on social media
Facebook
Twitter
LinkedIn
See all Research on Phosphorus