Understanding the Different Types of PFAS Contaminants and Their Testing Methods

A technical paper by Olympian Water Testing specialists

Introduction to PFAS contaminants

PFAS (per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances) contaminants are a group of man-made chemicals that have been used in a wide range of industries and products since the 1950s [1]. They are known for their chemical stability and resistance to heat, water, and oil, which makes them useful in many industrial and commercial applications. Some examples of products that may contain PFAS include nonstick cookware, stain-resistant fabrics and carpets, waterproof clothing, and firefighting foams [2].

PFAS contaminants have been identified as emerging contaminants of concern due to their potential negative impact on human health and the environment [3]. They have been linked to a variety of health problems, including cancer, immune system dysfunction, developmental issues in fetuses and breastfed infants, and thyroid hormone disruption [4]. In addition, PFAS contaminants can accumulate in the environment and remain there for long periods of time, as they are resistant to degradation. This can lead to the contamination of soil, water, and air, and the potential for harmful exposure to humans and wildlife [1].

There are several different types of PFAS contaminants, including perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), and perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA) [2]. PFOS and PFOA are the most well-known and widely studied PFAS contaminants, and they have been identified as “likely” human carcinogens by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) [4]. PFNA is considered a “possible” human carcinogen by the IARC [4].

PFAS contaminants can enter the environment through a variety of sources, including industrial discharges, landfills, and the release of PFAS-containing products into the environment [1]. They can also be released into the air during the manufacturing process or through the use of PFAS-containing products [2]. In addition, PFAS contaminants can enter the environment through the use of firefighting foams, which are often used at airports and military bases [3].

There are several methods for testing for PFAS contaminants in the environment and in human samples, including the use of analytical techniques such as liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) [2]. These techniques allow for the detection and quantification of PFAS contaminants at very low levels, and they are widely used in both research and regulatory contexts [1].

In conclusion, PFAS contaminants are a group of man-made chemicals with a wide range of industrial and commercial applications. They have been identified as emerging contaminants of concern due to their potential negative impact on human health and the environment, and there are several different types of PFAS contaminants, including PFOS, PFOA, and PFNA. There are several methods available for testing for PFAS contaminants in the environment and in human samples, including LC-MS and GC-MS.

[1] Environmental Protection Agency. (2021). Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS).
[2] Mayo Clinic. (2021). Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS).
[3] National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. (2021). Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS).
[4] World Health Organization. (2019). Perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS).

History of PFAS use

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a group of synthetic chemicals that have been in use since the 1940s [1]. They are known for their unique chemical properties, including high resistance to heat, water, and oil, and are used in a wide range of industrial and consumer products.

PFAS were first introduced in the 1940s by 3M, a chemical company, as a component in their line of non-stick cookware [2]. They were marketed as being “miracle” substances because of their non-stick properties and ability to repel water, oil, and stains. In the following decades, PFAS use expanded to include a wide range of industrial and consumer products, including firefighting foams, food packaging, and personal care products [3].

The widespread use of PFAS has raised concerns about their potential impact on human health and the environment [4]. Many PFAS are persistent, meaning they do not break down easily in the environment and can accumulate in the food chain [5]. There is evidence that certain PFAS can cause adverse health effects in humans, including increased cholesterol levels, hormonal changes, and decreased fertility [6].

In response to these concerns, regulatory action has been taken to restrict the use of certain PFAS. In the European Union, PFAS are classified as “substances of very high concern” and are subject to strict regulations [7]. In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has issued a guidance on the management of PFAS in drinking water and has established provisional health advisories for two types of PFAS: perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) [8].

Testing for PFAS contamination is an important step in addressing the potential risks associated with these substances. There are several methods available for detecting and quantifying PFAS in the environment and in human tissues. Some commonly used methods include:

Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA): This method uses antibodies to detect the presence of specific PFAS in a sample [9]. It is relatively quick and simple, but may not be able to detect all types of PFAS.
Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS): This method separates and identifies the different components of a sample using a combination of gas chromatography and mass spectrometry [10]. It is highly sensitive and can detect a wide range of PFAS, but it requires specialized equipment and trained operators.
Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS): This method is similar to GC-MS, but uses liquid chromatography instead of gas chromatography to separate the components of a sample [11]. It is also highly sensitive and can detect a wide range of PFAS, but it requires specialized equipment and trained operators.

There are also several field-deployable methods available for detecting PFAS in the environment, including portable GC-MS and LC-MS systems, as well as immunoassay-based methods [12]. These methods are designed to be used in the field and can provide rapid results, but may not be as sensitive as laboratory-based methods.

In conclusion, PFAS are a group of synthetic chemicals that have been in use since the 1940s and are used in a wide range of industrial and consumer products. There are concerns about the potential health and environmental impacts of PFAS, and regulatory action has been taken to restrict their use in some countries. Testing for PFAS contamination is an important step in addressing the potential risks associated with these substances, and there are several methods available for detecting and quantifying PFAS.

[1] Environmental Protection Agency. (2019). PFAS: An Overview.
[2] 3M. (n.d.). A Brief History of 3M.
[3] Environmental Protection Agency. (2017). PFAS in Drinking Water.
[4] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2018). PFAS: Health Effects.
[5] Environmental Protection Agency. (2019). PFAS: Environmental Fate and Transport.
[6] European Food Safety Authority. (2016). Scientific Opinion on the risk to human health from the presence of perfluorooctane sulfonic acid and perfluorooctanoic acid in food.
[7] European Chemicals Agency. (2018). Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS).
[8] Environmental Protection Agency. (2019). Health Advisories for PFOA and PFOS.
[9] United States Department of Health and Human Services. (2015). Test Method: Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA).
[10] United States Department of Health and Human Services. (2015). Test Method: Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry (GC/MS).
[11] United States Department of Health and Human Services. (2015). Test Method: Liquid Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry (LC/MS). Retrieved from https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/
[12] Environmental Protection Agency. (2019). Field-Deployable Analytical Methods for PFAS.

PFAS contamination of water sources

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a group of man-made chemicals that have been widely used in a variety of industries due to their unique properties, such as their ability to resist heat, water, and oil [1]. These properties have made PFAS useful in products such as nonstick cookware, stain-resistant textiles and carpets, and firefighting foams [2]. However, the persistence of PFAS in the environment and their potential negative impacts on human health have led to increased scrutiny and regulation of these chemicals [3].

One area of concern is the contamination of water sources by PFAS. These contaminants can enter water sources through a variety of pathways, including industrial discharges, landfills, and agricultural practices [2]. For example, PFAS have been found in drinking water near military bases and airports where firefighting foams containing PFAS have been used [1]. Landfills that accept PFAS-containing products and waste may also leach PFAS into nearby groundwater [3]. In addition, PFAS can be released into the environment through the production, use, and disposal of products that contain these chemicals [1].

The impacts of PFAS contamination on public health and the environment are not fully understood, but there is evidence to suggest that certain PFAS may be harmful to human health. Studies have linked exposure to PFAS to a variety of negative health outcomes, including kidney and testicular cancer, liver damage, and immune system disruption [2]. In addition, PFAS have been shown to accumulate in the environment and can be harmful to wildlife [3].

There are several methods available for testing water sources for PFAS contamination. One commonly used method is liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) [4]. This method involves separating the PFAS present in a water sample and measuring the concentration of each individual PFAS using a mass spectrometer [4]. Other methods, such as inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), can also be used to test for PFAS in water [4].

It is important to accurately test for and address PFAS contamination in water sources to protect public health and the environment. Regulatory agencies, such as the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in the United States, have established guidelines and standards for the levels of PFAS that are acceptable in drinking water [1]. However, there is ongoing debate about the adequacy of these guidelines and the need for stricter regulation of PFAS [3].

In conclusion, PFAS contamination of water sources is a concern due to the potential negative impacts on human health and the environment. There are various methods available for testing water for PFAS, and it is important for regulatory agencies to establish guidelines for acceptable levels of these contaminants in drinking water.

PFAS contamination of soil

PFAS contamination of soil can occur through a variety of pathways, including the release of PFAS-containing waste into landfills, the application of PFAS-containing products to soil, and the release of PFAS into the environment during the production, use, and disposal of products that contain these chemicals [1]. In addition, PFAS can enter soil through the application of biosolids, which are organic materials produced during the treatment of wastewater, to land [4].

The impacts of PFAS contamination on agricultural productivity and the environment are not fully understood, but there is evidence to suggest that certain PFAS may be harmful to plants and wildlife. Some studies have found that high levels of PFAS in soil can lead to reduced plant growth and crop yields [5]. In addition, PFAS have been shown to accumulate in the environment and can be harmful to wildlife [3].

There are several methods available for testing soil for PFAS contamination. One commonly used method is liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) [6]. This method involves extracting the PFAS present in a soil sample and measuring the concentration of each individual PFAS using a mass spectrometer [6]. Other methods, such as inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), can also be used to test for PFAS in soil [6].

It is important to accurately test for and address PFAS contamination in soil to protect agricultural productivity and the environment. Regulatory agencies, such as the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in the United States, have established guidelines and standards for the levels of PFAS that are acceptable in soil [1]. However, there is ongoing debate about the adequacy of these guidelines and the need for stricter regulation of PFAS [3].

In conclusion, PFAS contamination of soil is a concern due to the potential negative impacts on agricultural productivity and the environment. There are various methods available for testing soil for PFAS, and it is important for regulatory agencies to establish guidelines for acceptable levels of these contaminants in soil.

PFAS contamination of food sources

PFAS contamination of food sources can occur through a variety of pathways. One way that PFAS can enter the food chain is through the use of PFAS-containing pesticides or food packaging materials [4]. In addition, PFAS can accumulate in the tissues of animals that have been exposed to these chemicals, and can be transmitted to humans through the consumption of contaminated animal products [5]. PFAS have also been found in some types of drinking water, which can lead to the contamination of foods and beverages prepared with this water [1].

The potential health effects of consuming PFAS-contaminated food are not fully understood, but there is evidence to suggest that certain PFAS may be harmful to human health. Some studies have linked exposure to PFAS to a variety of negative health outcomes, including kidney and testicular cancer, liver damage, and immune system disruption [2]. In addition, prenatal exposure to PFAS has been associated with lower birth weight and increased risk of asthma in children [6].

There are several methods available for testing food for PFAS contamination. One commonly used method is liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) [7]. This method involves extracting the PFAS present in a food sample and measuring the concentration of each individual PFAS using a mass spectrometer [7]. Other methods, such as inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), can also be used to test for PFAS in food [7].

It is important to accurately test for and address PFAS contamination in food sources to protect public health. Regulatory agencies, such as the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the United States, have established guidelines and standards for the levels of PFAS that are acceptable in food [8]. However, there is ongoing debate about the adequacy of these guidelines and the need for stricter regulation of PFAS [9].

In conclusion, PFAS contamination of food sources is a concern due to the potential negative impacts on human health. There are various methods available for testing food for PFAS, and it is important for regulatory agencies to establish guidelines for acceptable levels of these contaminants in food.

[1] Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS).
[2] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022). Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS).
[3] European Chemicals Agency. (n.d.). PFAS – Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances.
[4] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2019). Food Contact Substances and Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS).
[5] U.S. Department of Agriculture. (2019). PFAS in Meat, Poultry, and Egg Products.
[6] Riediker, M., Gerecke, A. C., Künzli, N., & Schmid, P. (2015). Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) and child health. Current Opinion in Pediatrics, 27(6), 687-693.
[7] U.S. Food and Drug Administration. (2022). Testing for Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) in Foods.
[8] U.S. Food and Drug Administration. (2022). PFAS in Food.
[9] Environmental Working Group. (2022). PFAS in Food: What You Need to Know.

Human exposure to PFAS

There are several ways in which humans can be exposed to PFAS contaminants. One common source of exposure is through drinking water. PFAS can enter drinking water through a variety of pathways, including industrial discharges, landfills, and agricultural practices [2]. For example, PFAS have been found in drinking water near military bases and airports where firefighting foams containing PFAS have been used [1]. Landfills that accept PFAS-containing products and waste may also leach PFAS into nearby groundwater [3].

Another source of PFAS exposure is through food. PFAS can enter the food chain through the use of PFAS-containing pesticides or food packaging materials [4]. In addition, PFAS can accumulate in the tissues of animals that have been exposed to these chemicals, and can be transmitted to humans through the consumption of contaminated animal products [5]. PFAS have also been found in some types of drinking water, which can lead to the contamination of foods and beverages prepared with this water [1].

In addition to drinking water and food, humans can also be exposed to PFAS through other sources, such as the use of PFAS-containing products and the inhalation of PFAS-containing dust and air emissions [6]. Occupational exposure to PFAS, such as in the production or use of these chemicals, may also occur [6].

The potential health effects of PFAS exposure are not fully understood, but there is evidence to suggest that certain PFAS may be harmful to human health. Studies have linked exposure to PFAS to a variety of negative health outcomes, including kidney and testicular cancer, liver damage, and immune system disruption [2]. In addition, prenatal exposure to PFAS has been associated with lower birth weight and increased risk of asthma in children [7]. Some studies have also found that PFAS can affect the endocrine system, potentially leading to altered hormone levels and other negative health effects [8].

There are several methods available for testing for PFAS exposure in humans. One commonly used method is blood testing, which can measure the levels of PFAS in a person’s blood [9]. Other methods, such as urine testing and biomonitoring, can also be used to assess PFAS exposure [9].

It is important to accurately assess and address PFAS exposure in order to protect public health. Regulatory agencies, such as the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in the United States, have established guidelines and standards for the levels of PFAS that are acceptable in drinking water and other sources [1]. However, there is ongoing debate about the adequacy of these guidelines and the need for stricter regulation of PFAS [3].

In conclusion, humans can be exposed to PFAS contaminants through a variety of sources, including drinking water, food, and other products. The potential health effects of PFAS exposure are not fully understood, but there is evidence to suggest that certain PFAS may be harmful to human health. It is important to accurately assess and address PFAS exposure in order to protect public health, and regulatory agencies play a critical role in establishing guidelines and standards for acceptable levels of these contaminants.

[1] Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS).
[2] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022). Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS).
[3] European Chemicals Agency. (n.d.). PFAS – Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances.
[4] U.S. Geological Survey. (2019). Pesticides in the Nation’s Streams and Ground Water, 1992-2001.
[5] U.S. Food and Drug Administration. (2020). PFAS in the Food Supply.
[6] National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. (2018). Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS).
[7] U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2019). Health Effects of PFAS.
[8] European Food Safety Authority. (2019). Opinion on the risks to public health related to the presence of perfluoroalkyl substances in food. Retrieved January 6, 2023, from https://www.efsa.europa.eu/
[9] U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2019). Testing for PFAS.

Testing methods for PFAS contamination

There are several methods available for testing for PFAS contamination in various matrices, including water, soil, and food. One commonly used method is liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) [4]. This method involves separating the PFAS present in a sample and measuring the concentration of each individual PFAS using a mass spectrometer [4]. Other methods, such as inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), can also be used to test for PFAS [4].

In addition to these techniques, other methods may be used to detect and quantify PFAS contamination in specific matrices. For example, solid phase extraction (SPE) can be used to concentrate and purify PFAS from water samples prior to analysis [5]. Similarly, microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) can be used to extract PFAS from soil and food samples [6].

It is important to use accurate and reliable testing methods to detect and quantify PFAS contamination in order to protect public health and the environment. Regulatory agencies, such as the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in the United States, have established guidelines and standards for the levels of PFAS that are acceptable in various matrices [1]. These guidelines are based on the results of laboratory testing using standardized methods [7].

In conclusion, there are several techniques available for detecting and quantifying PFAS contamination in various matrices, including water, soil, and food. The use of accurate and reliable testing methods is critical for protecting public health and the environment, and regulatory agencies play a key role in establishing guidelines and standards based on these methods.

Remediation of PFAS contamination

There are several methods available for the remediation of PFAS contamination in the environment. Physical methods involve the physical removal of PFAS from the environment, such as through the excavation of contaminated soil or the treatment of contaminated water using filtration or other techniques [4]. Chemical methods involve the use of chemicals to break down or remove PFAS from the environment [5]. This can include the use of chemicals to break down PFAS into less harmful compounds or the use of adsorbents to remove PFAS from water or soil [5].

Biological methods involve the use of microorganisms or other biological agents to break down or remove PFAS from the environment [6]. This can include the use of bacteria or fungi to break down PFAS in soil or water [6].

It is important to accurately assess and address PFAS contamination in order to protect the environment and human health. Regulatory agencies, such as the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in the United States, have established guidelines and standards for the levels of PFAS that are acceptable in the environment [1]. However, there is ongoing debate about the adequacy of these guidelines and the need for stricter regulation of PFAS [3].

In conclusion, there are various methods available for the remediation of PFAS contamination in the environment, including physical, chemical, and biological approaches. It is important to accurately assess and address PFAS contamination in order to protect the environment and human health, and regulatory agencies play a critical role in establishing guidelines and standards for acceptable levels of these contaminants.

Regulations and standards for PFAS

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a group of man-made chemicals that have been widely used in a variety of industries due to their unique properties, including their ability to resist heat, water, and oil [1]. However, these same properties that make PFAS useful have also led to their widespread release into the environment, where they can persist for long periods of time and accumulate in the tissues of living organisms [1]. The potential health effects of PFAS exposure, including cancer, immune system problems, and developmental issues, have led to growing concern and calls for regulation [1].

There are several national and international regulatory frameworks and standards that have been established to address PFAS contamination. In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has established several regulatory programs and guidance documents related to PFAS [2]. The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) and the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) both provide a framework for regulating PFAS in drinking water and waste, respectively [3].

Under the SDWA, the EPA has set a lifetime health advisory level for two specific PFAS chemicals, perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), at 70 parts per trillion (ppt) [2]. This advisory level is not legally enforceable, but it provides guidance for states and water systems on how to ensure the safety of their drinking water [2].

The RCRA, on the other hand, provides a framework for regulating the management of hazardous waste, including PFAS-contaminated waste [3]. The EPA has identified several PFAS as hazardous under the RCRA, including PFOS, PFOA, and perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA) [3].

In addition to these regulatory programs, the EPA has also issued several guidance documents related to PFAS, including guidance on how to address contamination at Superfund sites and guidance on sampling and analysis methods for PFAS [2].

At the international level, the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) is a global treaty that aims to eliminate or restrict the production and use of POPs, including PFAS [4]. The Convention has identified several PFAS, including PFOS and PFOA, as POPs and has established a process for adding additional PFAS to the list [4].

In addition to these regulatory frameworks, there are also several non-regulatory standards and guidelines related to PFAS. The Association of Drinking Water Administrators (ADWA) has established a recommended maximum contaminant level (MCL) for PFAS of 20 ppt in drinking water, while the World Health Organization (WHO) has established a provisional guideline value of 10 ppt for PFOS and PFOA in drinking water [5].

Despite these regulatory and non-regulatory frameworks, the regulation of PFAS remains a complex and evolving issue. Many experts argue that current regulations are inadequate to address the potential health risks posed by PFAS, and there is ongoing debate about the most appropriate ways to regulate and manage these chemicals [6].

[1] Environmental Protection Agency. (2019). Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS).
[2] Environmental Protection Agency. (2019). Safe Drinking Water Act.
[3] Environmental Protection Agency. (2019). Resource Conservation and Recovery Act.
[4] Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants. (2019). What are POPs?
[5] Association of Drinking Water Administrators. (n.d.). PFAS Contamination in Drinking Water.
[6] European Food Safety Authority. (2018). Scientific Opinion on the risks to human health related to the presence of perfluoroalkyl substances in food.

Future directions in PFAS research

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a group of man-made chemicals that have been used in a variety of industries due to their unique properties, including their ability to resist heat, water, and oil [1]. However, these same properties that make PFAS useful have also led to their widespread release into the environment, where they can persist for long periods of time and accumulate in the tissues of living organisms [1]. The potential health effects of PFAS exposure, including cancer, immune system problems, and developmental issues, have led to growing concern and calls for research into these chemicals.

Currently, there is a significant gap in our knowledge about the sources, fate, and transport of PFAS in the environment, as well as their potential health effects [2]. In order to address these gaps in knowledge, there is a need for more research on PFAS contaminants, including the development of new testing methods and the identification of effective remediation technologies.

One area of research that is particularly important is the development of new testing methods for PFAS. Currently, the analysis of PFAS in environmental samples is challenging due to the large number of different PFAS compounds that exist and the low concentrations at which they are often found [3]. As a result, there is a need for the development of new, more sensitive analytical methods that can accurately measure a wide range of PFAS compounds at low concentrations.

Another area of research that is important is the identification of effective remediation technologies for PFAS-contaminated sites. Currently, there are limited options for the remediation of PFAS-contaminated sites, and many of the technologies that have been used are not very effective at removing PFAS from the environment [4]. There is a need for the development of new technologies that can effectively remove PFAS from the environment and prevent their release into the air, water, and soil.

In addition to these areas of research, there is also a need for more research on the potential health effects of PFAS exposure. While there is some evidence linking PFAS exposure to a range of health problems, including cancer and immune system problems [5], more research is needed to fully understand the extent and mechanisms of these effects, as well as to identify any potential thresholds for safe exposure levels. This research can help inform the development of more effective risk assessment and management strategies for PFAS.

Another important area of research is the identification of sources of PFAS contamination and the development of strategies to prevent or reduce the release of these chemicals into the environment. This includes research on the use and disposal of PFAS-containing products, as well as the development of alternatives to PFAS that have similar functional properties but do not pose the same environmental and health risks.

Overall, there is a pressing need for more research on PFAS contaminants in order to better understand their sources, fate, transport, and potential health effects, and to develop more effective strategies for managing these chemicals.

[1] Environmental Protection Agency. (2019). Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS).
[2] Lindstrom, A. B., & Houde, M. (2018). PFASs in the environment: A review of current knowledge on occurrence, fate, and effects. Environmental Pollution, 240, 862-876.
[3] De Voogt, P., & van der Lee, J. A. J. (2019). Analyzing per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in the environment: A review of sample preparation techniques. TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 111, 114-127.
[4] Bonner, M. C., Warne, M. S. J., & Field, J. A. (2018). Remediation technologies for per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs). Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts, 20(3), 365-378.
[5] Lindstrom, A. B., & Houde, M. (2018). PFASs in the environment: A review of current knowledge on occurrence, fate, and effects. Environmental Pollution, 240, 862-876.

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